Unit 2 Organisation in the Living World

Introduction -

• Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It is the basic unit of life.
• It is discovered by Robert Hook in 1831 in cork slice with the help of primitive microscope.
• Leeuwenhoek (1674), discovered the free living cells in pond water with the improved microscope
• Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell in 1831.
• Purkinje coined the term ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell in 1839.

The cell theory-

• The theory that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and the cell is the basic unit of life,
was presented by two biologists, Schleiden and Schwann.

• The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that all cells arise from preexisting
cells.

Introduction

→ A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or work together to achieve a particular function
forms a tissue.
→ Most of the tissues in plants are supportive, which provides them with structural strength.
→ These tissues are dead, since dead cells can provide mechanical strength as easily as live ones
and need less maintenance.
→ Plant Tissues are of two types Meristematic & Permanent tissues.

Meristematic Tissue

→ These are simple living tissues having thin walled compactly arranged immature cells which are
capable of division and formation of new cells.

Features of Meristematic tissues:

→ Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).
→ Intercellular spaces are absent (compact tissue).
→ Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & prominent nuclei are present.
→ Large numbers of cell organelles are present.
→ Active metabolic state, stored food is absent.
→ Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions of plants, example: root & shoot tips.

Classification of Meristematic Tissues on the Basis of Origin

• Primary (Promeristem)

→ Derived directly from the meristems of embryo.
→ They consist of cells derived from primary meristem.
→ They add to primary growth of plants.

• Secondary Meristematic Tissues

→ Formed by permanent tissues.
→ These are having cells derived from primary permanent tissue.
→ They usually add to the diameter of plants.

Classification of Meristematic Tissues on the Basis of Location

• Apical Meristem

→ It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots.
→ Cell division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stem & root, thus it is involved in primary
growth of the plant.

• Intercalary Meristem

→ It is present behind the apex.
→ It is the part of apical meristem which is left behind during growth period.
→ These are present at the base of leaf & internode region.
→ These lead to the increase in the length of leaf (Primary), example: in grass stem, bamboo stem
mint stem etc.

• Lateral Meristem

→ It is also called as secondary meristem.
→ It occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis of the plant.
→ It gives rise to the vascular tissues.
→ Causes growth in girth of stem & root.
→ They are responsible for secondary growth.

Permanent Tissue

→ The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their capability to divide.
→ They have definite shape, size and thickness. The permanent tissue may be dead or living.
→ The division & differentiation of the cells of meristematic tissues give rise to permanent tissues.
→ In cell differentiation, developing tissue and organs change from simple to more complex form
to become specialized for specific functions.
→ The cells of permanent tissue loose the capacity to divide and attain a permanent shape, size
and function.

• Permanent tissues are classified into two types on the basis of Structure and Composition i.e.
Simple Permanent Tissues and Complex Permanent Tissues.

Simple Permanent Tissues

→ These are made up of same type of cells which are similar structurally and functionally.
→ They include two types of tissue Protective tissues and Supporting Tissues.

• Protective Tissues: These tissues are primarily protective in function.
→ They consist of Epidermis and Cork/Phellem.
(i) Epidermis
→ Epidermis forms one cell thick outermost layer of various body organs of plants such as leaves,
flowers, stems and roots.
→ Epidermis is covered outside by cuticle. Cuticle is a water-proof layer of waxy substance called
cutin which is secreted by the epidermal cells.
→ Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes.
→ Cells of epidermis of leaves are not continuous at some places due to the presence of small
pores called as stomata.
→ Each stomata is guarded by a pair of bean-shaped cells called as guard cells. These are the one
epidermal cells which possess chloroplasts, the rest being colourless.

Functions of Epidermis

→ The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection.
→ Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration and evaporation of water and prevents wilting.
→ Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis respiration.
→ Stomata also helps in transpiration.

(ii) Cork or Phellem

→ In older roots and stems, tissues at the periphery become cork cells or phellem cells.
→ Cork is made up to dead cells with thick walls and do not have any intercellular spaces.
→ The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin.
→ The cells of cork become impermeable to water and gases due to the deposition of suberin.
→ The cork cells are without any protoplasm but are filled with resins or tannins.

Functions of Cork

→ Cork is protective in function. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and mechanical injury.
→ Imperviousness, lightness, toughness, compressibility and elasticity make the cork commercial
valuable.
→ Cork is used for insulation, as shock absorber in linoleum.
→ Cork is used in the making of a variety of sport goods such as cricket balls, table tennis, shuttle
cocks, wooden paddles etc.

• Supporting Tissues: These are supportive in function.
→ There are three types of Supporting tissues i.e. Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.

(i) Parenchyma
→ It is the fundamental tissue.
→ Tissue first time evolved in bryophyte.
→ Thin walled cells, oval or spherical in structure.
→ Cell wall mainly composed of cellulose & pectin.
→ Large central vacuole for food & water storage.
→ Primary function is food storage.
→ Some parenchyma involved in excretory substance storage are so called as idioblast, storing
such as resin, tannin, gums & oils.
→ In typical parenchyma chlorophyll is absent.
→ Chloroplast containing parenchyma tissue are chlorenchyma which perform
photosynthesis such as mesophyll of leaves.
→ In hydrophytic plants aerenchyma (a type of parenchyma containing air spaces) provides
buoyancy.
→ Parenchyma provides turgidity to cells.

(ii) Collenchyma

→ It is the living mechanical tissue.
→ Elongated cells with thick corners.
→ Localized cellulose & pectin thickening.
→ Provides flexibility to plant parts & easy bending of various parts of plant.
→ Present only in herbaceous dicot stem.
→ Present at thin margin of leaves.
→ Few chloroplasts may be present.
→ Gives mechanical strength & elasticity to the growing stems.

(iii) Sclerenchyma (Scleras–hard) Strengthening tissue.
→ Composed of extremely thick walled cells with little or no protoplasm.
→ Cells are dead & possess very thick lignified walls.
→ Lignin is water-proof material.
→ Intercellular spaces are absent.

• Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types Sclereids and Fibres.

• Sclereids
→ These are also called grit cells or stone cells.
→ These are small cells, where lumen is so small due to higher thickening of cell wall, as present in
drup fruit (mango, coconut, walnut) in legume seeds (Macrosclereid).

• Fibers

→ They are very long, narrow, thick, lignified cells. Lumen is large as compared to sclereids.
They are generally 1-3 mm long.
→ In the thick walls of both the fibres and sclereids are present thin areas called as pits.
→ Sclrenchyma Fibres are used in the manufacture of ropes, mats & certain textile fibres.
→ Jute and coir are obtained from the thick bundle of fibres.

Difference between Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Complex Permanent Tissues
→ It consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
→ It helps in transportation of organic materials, water & minerals.
→ It is also known as conducting or vascular tissue.
→ Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.

Xylem

→ It is also known as wood and is a vascular and mechanical tissue.
→ Thick walled cells are found in the form of tubular passages.
→ Xylem consists of four types of cells called as elements Tracheids, Vessels, xylem parenchyma
and xylem sclerenchyma.

(i) Tracheids
→ They are elongated angular dead cells (primitive elements) mainly involved in conduction of
water and minerals in gymnosperms.
(ii) Vessles
→ They are advance element (generally found in angiosperms).
→ Vessels are cylindrical tube like structures placed one above the other end to end which form a
continuous channel for efficient conduction of water.
(iii) Xylem parenchyma
→ They are small & thick walled parenchymatous cells subjected for storage of starch (food).
(iv) Xylem sclerenchyma
→ Thy are non-living fibres with thick walls and narrow cavities provide mechanical support.
→ Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements are dead.
→ The annual rings present in the trunk of a tree are xylem rings.
→ By counting the number of annual rings, we can determine the age of a tree.

Phloem

→ They also consist of both parenchymatous and schlerenchymatous cells.
→ Phloem consists of four types of element which are Sieve tubes, Companion cells, Phloem fibre
and Phloem parenchyma.

(i) Sieve tubes
→ Sieve tubes are slender tube like structures made up of elongated, thin walled cells placed end to
end.
→ The end walls of sieve tube cells are perforated by numerous pores, called as sieve plates.
→ Nucleus of sieve cell degenerates at maturity. However, cytoplasm persists, because of
protoplasmic continuation of sieve tube with companion cell through plasmodesmata.
→ Sieve cells possess slime protein or protein which is concerned with growth and repair of sieve
cells.
(ii) Companion cells
→ Companion cells have dense cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.
→ Sieve cells & companion cells are so called sister cells because they originate from single mother
cell.
(iii) Phloem fibre
→ They give mechanical support to sieve tubes.
(iv) Phloem parenchyma
→They store food and help in radial conduction of food.
(v) Leptome
→ Main part of phloem involved in conduction of food, which is sieve tube.
→ In xylem, only unidirectional movement is possible while in phloem bidirectional movement can
occur.
→ In phloem, except phloem sclerenchyma all elements are living.

Introduction
→ All living organism are grouped on the basis of their similarities and increasing complexities into different complexities.

→ Biodiversity means the variety of living organisms present on a particular region.
→ There are about 20 lac organisms known on the earth which differ from one another in externaform, internal structure, mode of nutrition, habitat, etc.
• Taxonomy:
It is a branch of biology which deals with identification, nomenclature andclassification of organisms.
Carolus Lannaeus is called the father of taxonomy.

Introduction

→ ‘Health’ is a state of being well enough to function well physically, mentally and socially.

→ Disease: Any disturbance in the structure or function of any organ or part of body.
→ The various causes of diseases are pathogens (virus, bacteria), lack of nutritious diet/balanced
diet and lack of public health services.
→ Acute diseases occur suddenly and lasts for a short duration while chronic diseases develop
slowly and lasts for long period of time.
→ The diseases/infections can be prevented by life style (exercise, proper sleep, enough relaxatio
modification, taking balanced diet, good personal health and hygiene and also maintaining a cle
and healthy surrounding.
→ Treatment involves killing of the microbes/pathogens.

Health

→ Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being.

• The conditions necessary for good health are:
(i) Good physical and social environment.
(ii) Good economic conditions.
→ Good physical and social environment includes clean surroundings, good sanitation, proper
garbage disposal and clean drinking water.
→ Good economic conditions includes job opportunities for earning to have nutritious food and to
lead a healthy life.
→ Personal and Community Issues Both Matter for Health
→ All those activities which people do both individually and in groups for the development of their
society, constitute the community health.
→ Personal and community health are supplementary to each other.
→ We protect ourselves by keeping our body clean.
→ For this, we also require a good and healthy environment in our surroundings.
→ We can have this only by the means of community health and development.
→ So, both personal and community health are inter-related.
Differences between Being Healthy and Disease-free
Being Healthy Being Disease-free
It is a state of being well enough to function well
physically, mentally and socially.
It is a state of absence from diseases.
It refers to the individual, physical and social environment.
It refers only to the individual.
The individual has good health. The individual may have good health or poor health.
Disease and Its Causes

What does disease look like?
→ When a person is affected by a disease either the functioning or the appearance of one or mor
systems of the body will change for the worse.
→ These changes give rise to symptoms and signs of disease.
→ On the basis of the symptoms the physicians look for the signs of a particular disease and
conduct tests to confirm the disease.

Types of Diseases

(i) Acute Diseases: Acute diseases which last for only very short period of time and affect body
suddenly and quickly. Example: Cold, cough, typhoid etc.
(ii) Chronic Diseases: The diseases which last for a long time, even as much as a life time, are cal
chronic diseases. Example: Diabetes, tuberculosis, elephantiasis etc.
Causes of Diseases
• Diseases are caused by:
→ Pathogens like virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoans or worms.
→ Poor health and under nourishment.
→ Hereditary and genetic disorder.
→ Lack of proper treatment of immunization.
→ Environmental pollution (air, water etc.)

→ Types of organisms

• On the basis of no. of cells, organisms are of two types:
(i) Unicellular Organism
(ii) Multicellular Organism

(i) Unicellular Organism: These organisms are single celled which perform all the functions.
Example: Amoeba, paramecium, bacteria.
(ii) Multicellular Organism: Many cells grouped together to perform different function in the body
and also form various body parts. Example: fungi, plants, animals.

• The shape and size of cell are different according to the kind of function they perform. There is
division of labour in cells.
• Each cell has certain kind of cell organelles to perform different type of function like mitochondria
for respiration.

→ Types of cells
• There are two types of cells:
(i) Prokaryotes
(ii) Eukaryotes

Multicellular Organism: Many cells grouped together to perform different function in the body
and also form various body parts. Example: fungi, plants, animals.

Plasma membrane or Cell membrane
 

• This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external
environment.
• The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the
cell.
• It also prevents movement of some other materials. The cell membrane is called selectively
permeable membrane.
• It is made up of lipid and protein.
 

→ Properties of Plasma membrane
 

• It is flexible (made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins).
• Its flexibility enables cell to engulf in food and other from the external environment. This process
called endocytosis. Amoeba acquire food through this process.
 

→ Functions of Plasma membrane

• It permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell.
• It prevents movement of some other materials not required for the cell as it acts like selectively
permeable membrane.

Cell Wall
 

• Cell wall is another rigid outer covering in addition to the plasma membrane found in plant cell.
The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
• The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance which
provides structural strength to plants.

→ Function of Cell Wall
 

• Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (hypotonic) external
media without bursting.
• In such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure
against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell.
• Because of cell wall, cells can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than
animal cells.

Plasmolysis
 

• When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the
contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

Difference between Animal cell and Plant cell

Cytoplasm
 

• The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
• It also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of these organelles performs a specific
function for the cell.
 

→ Function of Cytoplasm
 

• It helps in exchange of material between cell organelles.
• It act as store of vital chemicals such as amino acid, glucose, vitamins and iron etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic pathways such as glycolysis.
 

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
• It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles).
• The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane. It is also made up of lipid and
proteins.

→ Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

(i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
(ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
 

→ Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum
 

• RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its
surface. The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture.
The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell depending on need, using the
ER.
• The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
• Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as
membrane biogenesis.
• Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
• Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system.
• One function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins)
between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
• The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell.
• In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying
many poisons and drugs.
 

Golgi Apparatus
 

• The Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
• These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER and therefore constitute
another portion of a complex cellular membrane system.
 

→ Function of Golgi Body
 

• The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and
outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
• Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In some
cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
• The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.
 

Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
• It helps to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelle
• Lysosomes have membrane-bounded structure whose sacs are filled with digestive enzymes.
 

→ Functions of Lysosomes
 

• Lysosomes break foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food as well as old
organelles into small pieces.
• They contain powerful digestive enzymes which are made in RER which is capable of breaking
down all organic material made in RER.
• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism such as when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes
may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the
‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
 

Mitochondria
 

• Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
 

→ Structure of mitochondria
 

• Mitochondria have two membrane coverings.
• The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
• These folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.
 

→ Functions of mitochondria

• The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in
the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules.
• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new
chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some
of their own proteins.
 

Plastids
 

• Plastids are present only in plant cells.
• There are three types of plastids:
(i) Chromoplasts (coloured plastids).
(ii) Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
(iii) Chloroplasts (contains the pigment chlorophyll).
 

→ Structure of Plastids
 

• The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a
material called the stroma.
• Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes like mitochondria and similar to its structure.
 

→ Function of Plastids

• Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
• Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
• Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein granules
are stored.
 

Vacuoles
 

• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
• They are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.

→ Function of vacuoles

• The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
• In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
• Many important substance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles which include amino
acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
• In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba
has consumed.
• In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess
 

Nucleus

• It is called the brain of the cell as it controls all the activities of cell.
→ Composition of Nucleus

• The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane.
• The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to
the cytoplasm.
• The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell
is about to divide.
→ Functions of chromosomes

• Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in
the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and
protein.
• DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells.
• Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
• In non-dividing cell, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material.
• Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is
about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes and perform cell division

→ Functions of Nucleus

• The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction. It is the process by which a single cell
divides and forms two new cells.
• It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell will develop
and what form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell.

Nucleoid

• In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the
absence of a nuclear membrane.
• Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a nucleoid.

Classification
 

→ The method of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities anddifferences is called classification.

→ It makes the study of wide variety of organisms easy and in systematic manner.
→ It helps to understand how the different organisms have evolved with
time.
→ It helps to understand the inter-relationships among different groups of organisms.
→ It forms a base for the study of other biological sciences, like biogeography.

Basis of Classification
 

→ There are certain features or properties used for the classification of living organisms which areknown as characteristics.
→ Organisms with same characteristics are placed in same groups.

Classification System
 

• Two kingdom classification:
Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 classified the living organisms into twogroups as plants and animals.
• Five kingdom classification:
H. Whittaker in 1959 further classified the organisms into fivekingdoms as Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia.

→ Carl Woese in 1977 further divided Kingdom Monera into archaebacteria (or Archae) andEubacteria (or Bacteria).

• Hierarchy of Classification:
 

Linnaeus proposed a classification system by arranging organismsinto taxonomic groups at different levels according to the characteristics they have.

Groups or Levels from top to bottom
 

→ The major characteristics considered for classifying all organisms into five major kingdoms.
• Type of cellular organization

(i) Prokaryotic cells: These are primitive and incomplete cells without well defined nucleus.

(ii) Eukaryotic cells: These are advanced and complete cells with well-defined nucleus.

• Body organization
 

(i) Unicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of single cell with all activities performed the single cell.
(ii) Multicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of large number of cells with differentfunctions performed by different cells.

• Mode of obtaining food
 

(i) Autotrophs: These are the organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis.
(ii) Heterotrophs: These are the organisms which depend on other organisms for food.

Five Kingdom Classification
R. H. Whittaker taxonomist was the first one to propose five kingdom classification.

Monera
 

(i) Type: Unicellular Prokaryotic
(ii) Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic or heterotrophic
(iii) Body: Lack well-defined nucleus and cell organelles
(iv) Examples: Bacteria, Blue-green algae

Protista
 

(i) Type: Unicellular Eukaryotic
(ii) Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic or Heterotrophic
(iii) Body: Some organisms use pseudopodia or cilia or flagella for movement
(iv) Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena

Fungi
 

(i) Type: Multicellular Non-green Eukaryotic
(ii) Mode of nutrition: Saprophytic or Parasitic Sometimes symbiotic
(iii) Body: Fungus is made up of long filaments called hyphae. The network of hyphae is mycelium.
(iv) Examples: Yeast, Rhiozpus, Mushrooms moulds

Plantae
 

(i) Type: Multicellular Eukaryotic
(ii) Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic
(iii) Body: Exhibits high level of tissue differentiation and have specialized body organs.
(iv) Examples: Trees, Plants, Shrubs

Animalia

(i) Type: Multicellular Eukaryotic
(ii) Mode of nutrition: Heterotrophic
(iii) Body: Exhibits high level of tissue differentiation and have specialized body organs. They havewell developed nervous system.
(iv) Examples: Fish, Insects, Animals, Humans, Birds

Kingdom I: Monera
 

(i) Prokaryotic, unicellular.
(ii) Can be autotrophs or heterotrophs.
(iii) May or may not have cell wall.
(iv) Examples: Anabaena and Bacteria (heterotrophic), Cyano-bacteria or Blue-green algae(autotrophic).

Kingdom II: Protista

(i) Eukaryotic, unicellular.
(ii) Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
(iii) May have cilia, flagella or pseudophodia for locomotion.
(iv) Examples: Plants like unicellular algae, diatoms; animals like protozoans (Amoeba, Paramecium,Euglena); fungi like slime molds and water molds.
 

Kingdom III: Fungi

(i) Eukaryotic.
(ii) Mostly multicellular but sometimes unicellular (yeast).
(iii) Source of food:
• Mostly saprophytes:
These organisms use decaying material for food.
• Some parasitic:
These organisms live inside body of other living organism to have food and canbe disease causing.
 

• Symbiotic relation:
 

These are relations between two organisms in which they live together forbenefit of one or both.
→ Lichens are a symbiotic relation between fungi and cyanobacteria.
→ Here fungi gets food from cyanobacteria and in return cyanobacteria gets water and protectiofrom sunlight through fungi.
(iv) Cell wall is made of chitin.
(v) Examples: Mushrooms (Agaricus), green mold (Penicillium), smut (Aspergilus).

Kingdom IV: Plantae

(i) Eukaryotic, multicellular.
(ii) Autotrophs.
(iii) Cell wall present.

Basis of division in Kingdom Plantae
 

(i) Differentiated body parts:
Body is differentiated into leaves, stems, roots, flowers, etc.
(ii) Presence of vascular tissue:
There are two types of vascular tissues present in the plants.
• Xylem: Helps in transport of water.
• Phloem: Helps in transport of food.
(iii) Reproduction through seeds or spores:
• Phanerogamae : Plants with seeds are called phanerogamae. They contains embryo with stored food and are multicellular.
• Cryotogamae: Plants with spores are called cryptogamae. They contains only naked embryo and are generally unicellular.
(iv) Seeds are inside the fruit or naked:
• Angiospermae: These are plants with seeds inside the fruit and bears flowers.
• Gymnospermae: These are plants with naked seeds and do not bear flowers.
 

Division 1: Thallophyta

(i) Basic and elementary plants with undifferentiated body parts.
(ii) Generally called algae.
(iii) No vascular tissue present.
(iv) Reproduce through spores.
(v) Mainly found in water.
(vi) Example: Ulva, Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Chara.
 

Division 2: Bryophyte

(i) Body structure differentiated but not fully developed.
(ii) No vascular tissues present.
(iii) Reproduce through spores.
(iv) Found on both land and water therefore known as ‘ Amphibians of Plantae Kingdom’.
(v) Example : Liverwort (Marchantia, Riccia), Mosses (Funaria), Hornwort (Dendrocerous).
 

Division 3: Pteridophyta
 

(i) Differentiated body structure – leaves, stems, roots, etc.
(ii) Vascular tissues present.
(iii) Reproduce through spores.
(iv) Examples : Marsilea, fern, horsetails.
 

Division 4: Gymnosperms

(i) Differentiated body parts.
(ii) Vascular tissues.
(iii) Naked seeds without fruits or flowers.
(iv) Perennial, evergreen and woody.
(v) Examples : Pines (deodar), Cycus, Ginkgo.
 

Division 5: Angiosperms

(i) Also known as flower-bearing plants.
(ii) Later on flower becomes fruit.
(iii) Seeds are inside the fruit.
(iv) Embryos in seeds have structure called cotyledons. They are also called seed leaves becausemany plants they emerge and become green when they germinate.
Angiosperms are further divided on the basis of number of cotyledons into two parts i.e. Monocotsand Dicots.

Kingdom V: Animalia
Basis of classification of Animalia kingdom:

• Symmetry
(i) Bilateral symmetry:
It is when an organism can be divided into right and left halves, identical bumirror images, by a single vertical plane.
(ii) Radial symmetry:
It is when an organism is equally spaced around a central point, like spokes oa bicycle wheel.
• Germ layers
→ In embryonic stages there are different layers of cells called germ cells.
• The three different types of germ cells are:
(i) Ectoderm:
It is the outermost layer which forms nail, hair, epidermis, etc.
(ii) Endoderm:
It is the innermost layer which forms stomach, colon, urinary, bladder, etc.
(iii) Mesoderm:
It is the middle layer between ectoderm and endoderm which forms bones,cartilage, etc.

• According to the number of germ layers present in embryonic stage, animal could be:
(i) Diploblastic:
Organisms which are derived from two embryonic germ layers (ecto and endo).
(ii) Triploblastic:
Organisms which are derived from all the three embryonic germ layers.
• Coelom
→ Body cavity or coelom is important for proper functioning of various organs.
→ For example, heart which has to contract and expand needs some cavity or empty space, which is provided by the coelom.
• On the basis of presence or absence of coelom, organisms are divided into:
(i) Acoelomates: These are the simple organisms having no body cavity.
(ii) Coelomates:
These are complex organisms having true cavity lined by mesoderm from all side
→ These are further sub-divided into schizocoelomates or protostomes (coelom formed due to splitting or mesoderm) and enterocoelomates or dueterostomes (coelom formed from pouchespinched off from endoderm).
(iii) Pseudo coelamate:
These are organisms having false coelom. They have pouches of mesoder scattered between endoderm and ectoderm.
 

• Notochord

→ It is a long rod like structure, which runs along the body between nervous tissues and gut and provides place muscle to attach for ease of movement.
→ Organisms could be:
• without notochord
• with notochord
• with notochord in initial embryonic stages and vertebral column in adult phase.
 

Phylum 1: Porifera or Sponges
 

(i) Cellular level of organization
(ii) Non-motile animals
(iii) Holes on body which led to a canal system for circulation of water and food
(iv) Hard outside layer called as skeletons
(v) Examples: Sycon, spongilla, euplectelia
 

Phylum 2: Coelenterata
 

(i) Tissue level of organization
(ii) No coelom
(iii) Radial symmetry, diploblastic
(iv) Hollow gut
(v) Can move from one place to another
(vi) Examples: Hydra, sea anemone, jelly fish (solitary), corals (colonies)
 

Phylum 3: Platyhelminthes

(i) Also called flat worms
(ii) No coelom present
(iii) Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
(iv) Free living or parasite
(v) Digestive cavity has one opening for both ingestion and egestion
(vi) Examples: Planaria (free living), liver fluke (parasitic)
 

Phylum 4: Mollusca
 

(i) Coelom present
(ii) Triploblastic, bilateral symmetry
(iii) Soft bodies sometimes covered with shell
(iv) Generally not segmented
(v) No appendages present
(vi) Muscular foot for movement
(vii) Shell is present
(viii) Kidney like organ for excretion
(ix) Examples: Chiton, octopus, pila, unio
 

Phylum 5: Annelida

(i) Second largest phylum
(ii) Coelom present
(iii) Bilateral, triploblastic
(iv) Segmented (segments specialized for different functions)
(v) Water or land
(vi) Extensive organ differentiation
(vii) Examples: Earthworm, leech, nereis
 

Phylum 6: Arthropoda
 

(i) Largest phylum (consist of 80% of species)
(ii) Generally known as insects
(iii) Coelom present
(iv) Bilateral, triploblastic
(v) Segmented, sometimes fused
(vi) Tough exo-skeleton of chitin
(vii) Joing appendages like feet, antenna
(viii) Examples : Prawn, scorpio, cockroach, housefly, butterfly, spider
 

Phylum 7: Echinodermata
 

(i) Spiny skin, marine
(ii) No notochord
(iii) Coelom present, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
(iv) Endoskeleton of calcium carbonate
(v) Water vascular system for locomotion
(vi) Bilateral symmetry before birth and radial symmetry after birth
(vii) Examples : Antedon, sea cucumber, star fish, echinus
 

Phylum 8: Protochordata
 

(i) Marine animals.
(ii) Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and have a coelom.
(iii) Gills present at some phase of life
(iv) Notochord is present which is a long rod-like support structure (chord=string) that runs along back of the animal separating the nervous tissue from the gut.
(v) Notochord provides a place for muscles to attach for ease of movement.
(vi) Examples : Balanoglossus, Herdmania and Amphioxus
 

Phylum 9: Nematoda

(i) Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
(ii) Body is cylindrical rather than flattened.
(iii) Tissues, but no real organs.
(iv) Sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.
(v) Familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases.
(vi) Worms causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms in the intestines (roundworm orpinworms).
(vii) Examples: Ascaris, Wuchereria
 

Phylum 10: Vertebrata
 

(i) Notochord converted to vertebral column
(ii) 2, 3, 4 chambered heart
(iii) Organs like kidney for excretion
(iv) Pair appendages
(v) Examples: Humans (4-chambered), frog (3-chambered), fishes (2-chambered)
→ Vertebrates are divided into five classes namely Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia
• Warm blooded organisms:
These are organisms which maintain same body temperatureirrespective of outside temperature.
Example: Humans. Human’s body temperature is approximately 37º.
• Cold blooded organisms:
These are organisms which change their body temperature as persurrounding temperature.
Example : Frog.
 

Pisces (Fishes)

→ They are fishes living in water.
→ Their skin is covered with scales or plates.
→ They respire using gills.
→ They have streamlined body and fins which help them to move in water.
→ They are cold blooded and their heart has only two chambers.
→ They lay eggs from which the young ones hatch out.
• Fishes are divided into two categories on the basis of skeleton:
(i) Fishes with cartilage skeleton called cartilaginous fishes. Example : Shark, Rays etc.
(ii) Fishes with bony skeleton called bony fishes. Example : Tuna, Rohu etc.

Amphibia (Amphibians)
 

→ They are found in land and water.
→ They do not have scales but have mucous glands on their skin.
→ They are cold blooded and the heart is three chambered.
→ Respiration is through gills or lungs. They lay eggs in water.
Example: Frogs, Toads, Salamanders etc.
 

Reptilia (Reptiles)

→ They have scales and breathe through lungs.
→ They are cold blooded.
→ Most of them have three chambered heart but crocodiles have four chambered heart.
→ They lay eggs with hard covering in water.
→ Example: Snakes, Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles etc.
 

Aves (Birds)
 

→ They are warm blooded animals.
→ They have four chambered heart.
→ They breathe through lungs.
→ They have an outer covering of feathers.
→ Their two fore limbs are modified into wings for flying. They lay eggs.
→ Example: Crow, Sparrow, Pigeon, Duck, Stork, Ostrich etc.
 

Mammalia (Mammals)

→ They are warm blooded animals.
→ They have four chambered heart.
→ They have mammary glands for production of milk to nourish their young ones.
→ The skin has hairs and sweat glands. Most of them give birth to their young ones.
→ Some of them lay eggs (like Platypus and Echidna).
→ Example: Cat, Rat, Dog, Lion, Tiger, Whale, Bat, Humans etc.

Nomenclature
 

→ An organism can have different names in different languages. This creates confusion in naming
organism.
→ A scientific name is needed which is same in all languages.
→ Binomial nomenclature system given by Carolus Linnaeus is used naming different organisms.

Some conventions in writing the scientific names:
 

(i) Genus should be written followed by the species.
(ii) First letter of the genus should be capital and that of the species should be in small letter.
(iii) When printed the name should be written in italics and when written with hands genus and
species should underlined separately.
Example : Homo sapiens for humans, Panthera tigris for tiger.

Infectious and Non-infectious Diseases

(i) Infectious Diseases: The diseases which spread due to infection by micro-organisms are called
infectious diseases.
→ It is communicated from diseased person to healthy person, caused by some biological
agents/pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, fungi worms.
 

(ii) Non-infectious Diseases: The disease which does not spread by contact between infected and
healthy person through air and water, is called non-infectious disease.
Example: Arthritis, heart disease.

Different Micro-organisms
SARS Viruses
→ SARS viruses are coming out of the surface of an infected cell (see the arrows for example).
→ 500 nanometer = 0.5 micrometer = 0.001 millimeter.
Trypanosoma
→ Trypanosoma is a protozoan organism.
→ It causes sleeping sickness.
→ The saucer-shaped substance lying next tothe protozoa, is a red blood cell.
Staphylococcus bacteria
→ The Staphylococcus bacteria causes acne.
→ The scale is indicated at the line at the top left of the picture. It is 5 micrometers long.
Adult roundworm
→ Adult roundworm is found in the small intestine.
→ Its technical name is Ascaris Lumbricoides.
→ The ruler next to it shows 4 centimeter to give an idea of the scale.
Leishmania
→ Leishmania, the protozoan organism causes kala-azar.
→ The organisms are oval-shaped, and each has one long whip-like structure.
→ The immune cell is about ten micrometres in diameter.

Antibiotics

→ Antibiotics blocks biochemical pathways important for bacteria. Hence, they are effective against
them. Example: Penicillin, tetracycline.
→ Many bacteria make a cell wall to protect themselves, the antibiotics (Penicillin) blocks the
bacterial process that builds cell wall.
→ Antibiotics works only against the bacteria and not against the viruses.
 

Means of Spread of Infectious Diseases

→ Infectious diseases spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food,
vectors, physical contact and sexual contact.
• Through air: By sneezing and coughing, the microbes spread into air and enter into the body of
healthy person, like common cold, tuberculosis, pneumonia etc.
• Through water : The microbes enter into our body by drinking/eating polluted and contaminate
water/food, like cholera, amoebic dysentery etc.
• Vectors: Some organisms like female anopheles mosquito also work as a vector of disease, like
malaria, dengue, yellow fever etc.
• Through sexual contact: Syphilus, AIDS spread by sexual contact with infected person. AIDS virus
can also spread through blood transfusion and from the mother to her child during pregnancy an
through breast feeding.

Principles of Treatment

→ The treatment of infectious diseases consists of two steps. They are to reduce the effects of the
disease (symptoms) and to kill the microbes which caused disease.
(i) To reduce the effects of the disease: This can be done by taking medicines to bring down the
effects of the disease like fever, pain or loose motions etc. and by taking bed rest to conserve our
energy.
(ii) To kill the microbes: This can be done by taking suitable antibiotics and drugs which kills the
microbes and the disease is cured.

Principles of Prevention
 

• There are two ways of prevention of infectious diseases. They are general ways and specific way
(i) General ways of prevention: Public hygiene is most important for prevention of infectious
diseases. Proper and sufficient food for everyone will make people healthy to resist the infection.
→ Air borne diseases can be prevented by living in conditions that are not crowded. Water borne
diseases can be prevented by providing safe drinking water.
→ Vector borne diseases can be prevented by providing clean environment.

(ii) Specific ways of prevention: There are disease specific measures which are used to fight them
It is done by Immunisation.
→ This is the process of introducing a weakened pathogen inside the body of the host to fool his/h
immune system to produce antibodies against that particular disease.
→ Not only does our immune system fight the disease (feeble pathogen), but also keeps a memo
of the incident by keeping those antibodies in blood.
→ Thus, next time even if the disease will strike the host’s body with full vigor, the body will be able
protect itself with the help of these antibodies.
→ This is also the basic law followed by vaccination programmes done for infants.

Pulse polio programme-

Pulse polio immunization programme forms the largest single day public health project. Pulse means a dose of a substance (here polio vaccine) especially when applied for a short period of time. It was conducted for the first time in 1995. The program uses oral polio vaccine or OPV. As per the national immunization Schedule (NIS), a dose of 3 drops is given orally to the child, i.e. one dose each at 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 months age. Finally a booster dose si given at the age of 1.5 years. After oral administration. Virus particles in the vaccine begin to live in the intestine of the human body and multiply. It leads to production of protective molecules in the intestine and the blood.

The Fundamental Unit of Life

Introduction of cell

The introduction to cell began back in the year 1655 when a revolutionary observation was made by an English scientist Robert Hooke. 
In all the living beings, cells are the basic structural units. We can compare the presence of cells in our body to the bricks in a building. All the bricks are assembled to make a building. Similarly, all the cells are assembled to make the body of an organism. 
Thus, it is the basic structural and functional unit of life and all the organisms are made up of cells. The subcellular structures of the cell comprise of the plasma membrane, organelles and in some cases a nucleus as well. As for the size of the cell, it is variable and maybe anything from 1 to 100 micrometre.
Robert Hooke was examining a dried section of the cork tree using a crude light microscope. In this analysis, he observed multiple small chambers which he named the cells. 
The first theory was proposed by the German botanist Matthias Jacob Schleiden and the German physiologist Theodore Schwann in 1838. This theory was formalized in the year 1858 by the German researcher Rudolf Virchow by suggesting that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 

Cell Theory

•    The cell is the basic functional and structural unit of life. All the living organisms are composed of cells.
•    All cells are formed by the division of the already existing cells which in terms of biology means reproduction.       Every cell of our body comprises of genetic material which is passed down during the process.
•    All the basic physiological and chemical functions i.e. the growth, repair, movement, communication, immunity and digestions are performed inside the cells.
•    All the activities of the cell depend mainly on the activities of the subcellular structures that lie within the cell. These subcellular structures comprise of the plasma membrane, organelles and if present, the nucleus.

Types of Cells

Broadly, there are two key types of cells i.e., the Prokaryotic Cell and the Eukaryotic Cell. The difference between the two is defined mainly by the presence or the absence of the nuclear membrane.

1. Prokaryotic Cell

 If a cell has a nuclear material without a nuclear membrane, then it is known as the prokaryotic cell, where ‘pro’ stands for primitive and ‘karyon’ stands for the nucleus. Some of the organisms that have prokaryotic cells include bacteria and the blue-green algae.

2. Eukaryotic Cell

If a cell has a nuclear material with a nuclear membrane, then it is known as the Eukaryotic Cell, where ‘EU’ stands for true and ‘karyon’ stands for the nucleus. All the living organisms except bacteria and blue-green algae have Eukaryotic Cells.

If we look at the structure of cell we have already seen that all cells have three things in common:

Cell Size

The cell size is variable. In the living organisms, the cell size may be as small as a millionth of a metre or may be as large as a few centimetres. Usually, all the cells are microscopic in size and aren’t visible to the naked eye. Thus, they need to be enlarged by a microscope for seeing.

Cell Shape

• Usually, the cells are round, elongated or spherical.
• There are also some cells which are long and pointed on both the ends. Such cells exhibit spindle shape.
• In some cases, the cells are very long.
• Some may be branched like the neuron or the nerve cell. The nerve cell transfers and receives messages.

It, therefore, helps in coordinating and controlling the working of the different parts of the body. The components of the cell are enclosed in a membrane. This membrane provides shape to the cells of animals and plants. There is a cell wall surrounding them. The cell wall is an additional covering over the cell membrane in the plant cells. It offers rigidity and shape to the cells.

Depending on the purpose, the cell takes on a number of forms. Cells come in a variety of forms, including:

Skin cells

1. These skin cells have a flat surface.
2. They are a protective body cover with a flat form that allows them to cover a large area.

Muscle cells

            i. Muscle cells are long, thin, and elongated.
            ii. Muscle cells expand and contract, and their long and thin structure aids in this process.

Nerve cells

            i. These nerve cells have a lengthy fibrous structure.
            ii. Long, thin extensions (axons and dendrites) connect these nerve cells to other nerve cells.
            iii. The extensions aid the neuron in swiftly transmitting chemical and electrical information throughout                    the body.
            iv. Nerve cells can contain fibres that are over a metre long.
             v. Messages are transmitted down these fibres from one nerve cell to the next.

 Blood cells

            i. White blood cells are disc-shaped but have the ability to alter form.
            ii. WBC in the blood alters their form to kill bacteria or any pathogens that are disease-causing                                organisms.                                                                                                                                                           iii. The structure of red blood cells (erythrocytes) allows them to pass through capillaries with ease.

Plant cells

            i. Depending on their purpose, plant cells might be rectangular, circular, oval, or elongated. Plant cells                   on the outside of the stem give the plant its strength.
            ii. For support, these cells have strong cell walls. Food is stored in specific cells in plants, and these                       cells are bigger than other cells.

Cell Wall

           The cell wall is the outer covering of a cell, present adjacent to the cell membrane, which is also called the plasma membrane. The cell wall is normally present in all plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea. Animal cells are not regular in their shape and this is mainly due to the lack of cell walls in their cells. Cell wall composition usually varies along with organisms.

The Function of the Cell Wall

There are various functions of cell wall like:

•    The cell wall of the plants provides definite shape, strength, and rigidity.
•    The cell wall also protects against mechanical stress and physical shocks.
•    Cell wall helps to control cell expansion due to the intake of water.
•    The cell wall also helps in preventing water loss from the cell.
•    The cell wall is responsible for transporting substances between and across the cell.
•    The cell wall acts as a barrier between the interior cellular components and the external environment.
Cell Membrane

•    The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane. 
•    Cell membrane is found in all cells and separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
•     The cell membrane also consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. 
•    The cell membrane is also responsible for the transportation of materials entering and exiting the cell.
•     The thin membrane surrounds every living cell, fixing the cell from the environment around it. 
•    The cell membranes are the cell’s constituents, often large, water-soluble, highly charged molecules such as proteins, nucleic acid, carbohydrates, and substances involved in cellular metabolism. 
•    The surrounding of the cell membrane is a water-based environment, containing ions, acids, and alkalis that are toxic to the cell, as well as nutrients that the cell must absorb to live and grow. 

Functions of the Cell Membrane

•    There are various functions of cell membrane-like:
•    The cell membrane protects the integrity of the interior cell.
•    The cell membrane provides support and maintains the shape of the cell.
•    The cell membrane helps in regulating cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.
•    It also plays an important role in cell signalling and communication.
•    The cell membrane acts as a selectively permeable membrane by allowing the entry of only selected substances into the cell.

 

Cell Membrane and Cell Wall

Cell membrane and cell wall

This gives a covering to all cells and the characteristics that it possess are listed below :

• It is present in both plant & animal cell
• It is an outer covering of cell
• It is living, thin and delicate membrane.
• It is semi-permeable – “allows selective particle to pass through.”
• It is made up of lipids & proteins.

It allows only selected substances to move through it .The movement of substances takes place by activities like: –

• Diffusion – “movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration”.  It is mostly seen in case of Gases.   For example: Cell respire i.e. intake of O2 & giving out CO2 take place through diffusion.
• Osmosis: “movement of solvent molecules from higher cone. to lower conc. across the semi-permeable membrane.

Functions of plasma membrane are as follows

a) It provides support to cell

b) It allow exchange of materials.

c) It provides shape to the cell.

In plant cells outer to cell membrane another layer or covering is present called as cell wall. It is present in all plant cells .It is somehow different from cell membrane in many aspects as it is listed below .

Cell wall

• It is outer to cell membrane
• It is dead
• It is present only in plant cell
• It is made up of cellulose (in fungus it is made of chitin)
• It is freely permeable

Functions of cell wall are as follows –

• It   provides mechanical support to cell.
• It allows materials to exchange.
• It maintains the shape of cells.

Now, if we go into detail, we can say that cell consist of cell membrane and it encloses called a living material protoplasm. Protoplasm is defined as living material of cell. The term protoplasm was coined by: J.E Purkinjee. It is further divided into two parts:

• Nucleus (discovered by Robert Brown)
• Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Like we have brain, the cell has a nucleus. All the activities are controlled by nucleus. It is located in the centre of the cell. It consists of different components:

1. Nuclear membrane

2. Nucleoplasm

3. Nuclear material

4. Nucleolus

1. Nuclear membrane: -It is the membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The membrane has pores in it which allow only selected exchange of materials. It is therefore called semi permeable in nature.

2. Nucleoplasm: It is the liquid in the nucleus that is cytoplasm of nucleus. It is similar to cytoplasm outer to nucleus except that it lacks organelles.

3. Nucleolus: It is a small oval body rich in proteins and RNA, RNA is ribonucleic acid and it is the genetic material. It is site for ribosome formation. That is why it is often termed as factory for ribosome.

4. Nuclear material: It contains thread like structures which further condense at the time of cell division to ribbon like structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins. There are segments of DNA that are responsible for characters in a body or transfer of characters from parents to offspring and are called genes. They act as hereditary vehicles.

Functions of nucleus are as follows

• It regulates the cell cycle.
• It controls metabolic activities of cell.
• It contains genes that help in transmission of characters from parents to offspring .

Cytoplasm

It is the liquid material of cell. Its soluble part is called cytosol. It contains organelles. These organelles perform necessary functions for the cell like some organelles help in cleaning the cell, some help in synthesizing certain substances for the cell, some perform catabolic function like breakdown of food, etc. Let us study them in detail:

Diversity in Living Organisms

Introduction

• We all know that there are abundant of living organisms present on the earth. Many organisms are not identical to each other.
• This variety of living beings present on the earth is called as a Biodiversity.
• Here is a separate branch of Biology called Taxonomy which identifies, names and classifies different organisms present on the earth.
• Carolus Linnaeus is known as the Father of the Modern Taxonomy.

• Binomial nomenclature is the naming of organisms with two names- genus and species.

• It was first established by Carl Linnaeus and later adopted by all scientists for the universal naming of organisms.
• The Law of priority is established if the same name is shared by two different species or two different taxa.
•  Taxonomy deals with the identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. 

                                              Classification of Living Things                                                             

•    Classification presented by Aristotle – He classified animals on the basis of their habitats – land, water and air.
•    But it can be easily observed that the animals that live at a particular habitat say land are still so different from each other.
•    Therefore, it was decided to classify the living organisms on the basis of a hierarchy.
•    This hierarchical classification was based on the similarities and dissimilarities in the characteristics of the living organisms.
•    Organisms having similar characteristics were placed in a similar category.

  Why do we need to classify organisms?
1. If we classify organisms into several categories, it will be easier for us to study them.
2. It will help us in understanding how did these organisms evolve.
3. We can also understand how different organisms are related to each other.
4. We can learn why different organisms are found at distinct geographical conditions.

Hierarchy Classification - Formation of Kingdoms
Biologists categorized different organisms into several kingdoms.

 The order of Classification

1. Kingdom
2. Phylum / Division
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species
Species is called as the Basic Unit of Classification. Species is a group of organism which can interbreed with each other. The picture below explains how humans are classified in a hierarchical order.

Hierarchical Order of Classifying Humans

Five Kingdom Classifications

                                                                                      Five Kingdom Classification

• The organization inside the cells

• • Prokaryotic Cells – Cells with no definite nucleus
  • Eukaryotic Cells – Cells with a definite nucleus
• The organization of cells in the body

• • Unicellular – Single-celled organisms
  • Multicellular – Multi-cell organisms
• organisms obtain their food

• • Autotrophs – Produce their food on their own 
  • Heterotrophs – Depend on other organisms for their food

                                                          Classification of Organisms       

Classification of Organisms

Archea Kingdom

    The monera kingdom is further classified as Archaea.
    These are microbes (bacteria) that can live in harsh conditions. Since they can live in extreme temperatures, they are also called Extremophiles. 
    These organisms lack a cell wall. 
    Their cell membrane is made up of lipids.
They are further classified into three categories, based on their habitat:

Who are Saprophytes?
Fungi also called as Saprophytes because they grow over the organic material and survive on them.
What are Symbiotic relationships?
Some species of fungi live in permanent mutually dependent relations with blue-green algae. They are said to have a symbiotic relationship. For Example, Lichens are often found on the bark of the trees.
 

Kingdom Plantae

Plant Kingdom

•    Components of Plants – whether they are distinct or not
•    Presence of Special Tissues in plants for the transportation of food and water
•    Presence of Seeds – whether the seeds are present inside the fruits or not.
Classification of plants on the ability to produce seeds -
•    Cryptogams – These plants do not have well developed reproductive organs. The organs cannot be seen clearly as well and appear as if they are hidden. Example are Thallophyte, Bryophyta and Pteridophyte.
•    Phanerogams – These plants have well developed reproductive organs hence they can produce seeds. They are further classified as the ones which have seeds hidden inside fruits or not - Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

What are Cotyledons?

The seed leaves in Angiosperms are called Cotyledons. They turn green on the germination of the seeds. Angiosperms can be divided into two types on the basis of the presence of cotyledons in them-

• Monocotyledons or monocots
• Dicotyledons or Dicots

Kingdom Animalia

Basic Characteristics of the Animalia Kingdom

1. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that lack a cell wall.
2. They are heterotrophs therefore they rely on others for food.
3. They have a growth pattern. The adult animals have a specific shape and size.
4. Most of the organisms have well-defined organ systems such as Respiratory System, Digestion System and so on.
5. Most of the animals can move. They aren’t stationary as Plants.
6. Animals have a nervous system which is why they are able to respond to an external stimulus.

Animals are classified on the basis of differences in their body type and design. The body cavity or coelom in animals contains the organs. Based on the presence of body cavity animals can be categorized as:

1. Coelomate – They have true body cavity called Coelom
2. Pseudocoelomate – It means false cavity. They have a body cavity which is filled with fluid
3. Acoelomate – They have no body cavity at all.

1. Phylum - Porifera

Phylum- Porifera

•    Level of Organization – Cells are present
•    Symmetry – Asymmetrical
•    Segmentation – No segments
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – No
•    Presence of Organs – No
•    Examples – Sycon, Spongilla, Euspongia
•    Other Characteristics-
o    They cannot move and are attached to a support.
o    They have pores in their body
o    These pores form a Canal system through which water and food circulate in the body and waste is removed.

o    They have a skeleton made of spongin protein and calcium carbonate – hard covering on them

2.Phylum - Coelentrata

                                                                          Phylum- Coelenterata 

•    Level of Organization – Tissues, Cells have two layers – so called as Diploblastic Organism
•    Symmetry – Radial
•    Segmentation – No segments
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – No
•    Presence of Organs – No
•    Examples – Aurelia (Jelly fish) and Adamsia (Sea Anemone)
•    Other Characteristics –
o    Some of them live in colonies - They are physically attached to each other such as Corals
o    Some of them live solitary such as Hydra

3.Phylum - Platyhelminthes

                                                                         Phylum Platyhelminthes

•    Level of Organization – Organs, The cells have three layers – so are called Triploblastic
•    Symmetry – Bilaterally Symmetrical - Left half of the body is identical to the right half
•    Segmentation – No segments
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – No so called as Acoelomates
•    Presence of Organs – Yes
•    Examples – Taenia solium (Tapeworm), Fasciola hepatica (Liver Fluke)
•    Other Characteristics -
o    They have a flat body and thus are called Flatworms
o    They can be Free-living like Planaria or parasitic.

4. Phylum- Nematode

                                                                               Phylum Nematoda

•    Level of Organization – Tissues so are called Triploblastic
•    Symmetry – Bilaterally Symmetrical - Left half of the body is identical to the right half
•    Segmentation – No segments
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom - False body cavity so called as Pseudocoelomates
•    Presence of Organs – Organ System Level Organisation
•    Examples – Parasitic worms and worms in the intestine
•    Other Characteristics–
o    They are called as Round Worms.
o    Sexual dimorphism visible - Female and male worms are distinct.

• 5. Phylum Annelida

                                                                           Phylum Annelida

•    Level of Organization – Organ system level, the cells have three layers so called Triploblastic
•    Symmetry – Bilaterally Symmetrical
•    True Segmentation – Present  (organs can be identified separately)
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – True body cavity so called as Coelomates
•    Presence of Organs – Definite organs 
•    Examples – Leech, Earthworms
•    Other Characteristics –
o    They are found in freshwater and marine water.
o    They have closed Circulatory system.

6. Phylum Arthropoda

                                                                           Phylum Arthropoda

•    Level of Organization – Organ systems
•    Symmetry – Bilaterally symmetrical
•    Segmentation – Present (organs can be identified separately)
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – True body cavity
•    Presence of Organs – Definite organs 
•    Examples – Prawns and butterflies
•    Other Characteristics
o    They have jointed legs
o    They have an open circulatory system – There are no well-defined blood vessels
o    They have chitinous exoskeleton
 

7. Phylum - Mollusca

Phylum Mollusca

•    Level of Organization – Organ systems, the cells have three layers– called Triploblastic
•    Symmetry – Bilaterally symmetrical
•    Segmentation – Little segmentation 
•    Body Cavity/ Coelom – Reduced
•    Presence of Organs – Definite organs 
•    Examples – Snails
•    Other Characteristics
o    Body is divided into head, Visceral Mass and Muscular Foot.
o    Some of the molluscs have hard external shell like that of Snails and some have internal reduced shell like that in Octopus.
o    They have an open circulatory system
o    There is a kidney-like organ for excretion
 

Why do we fall ill

Introduction

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.

Basic conditions for good health:

•    Proper balanced and nutritious diet.
•    Personal hygiene.
•    Clean environment and surroundings.
•    Healthy air, no pollution in the surrounding.
•    Regular exercise.
•    Proper rest.
•    Good standard of living and economic status.
Disease: when the body is not at ease i.e., comfortable then it is said to have a disease.
When there is a disease, the functioning or appearance of one or more systems of the body changes.

Disease is classified as Acute and Chronic.

Acute disease: Diseases that last for only short period of time, e.g., headache, common cold etc.
Chronic disease: Diseases that last for long time,’ are called chronic diseases, e.g., elephantiasis, tuberculosis, etc.

Causes of diseases: Immediate cause and contributory cause.

Immediate cause: The organisms that enter our body and causes disease is called immediate cause. For example, virus, bacteria, protozoa etc.

Contributory cause: The secondary factors which led these organisms enter our body are called as contributory cause. For example, dirty water, unclear
surroundings, contaminated food, improper nourishment, poverty, poor standard of living etc.
Diseases may be due to infectious and non-infectious causes.

(a) Infectious causes: Diseases where microbes are the immediate causes are called infectious diseases. The infection spreads from one person to another.

(b) Non-infectious causes: Some diseases that do not spread in the community, but remains internal are called non-infectious diseases. Example, cancer, genetic abnormalities, high blood pressure etc.

Infectious diseases (Communicable diseases): When a disease-causing organism enters our body it causes infection, it multiplies and grows in the body called host and micro-organisms multiplies in the host body.
Non-Infectious diseases (Non communicable diseases): Diseases that are not contagious are called non-infectious or non-communicable diseases because they can't be spread from one person to another. So, there's no vector for them to move from one host to another, no virus, no bacteria, no pathogen.
Instead, these diseases are caused by other factors, such as genetics, environment, and lifestyle behaviours.
 

Infectious diseases spread through:

•    Air: Causes air-borne diseases due to bacteria, virus e.g., common cold, influenza, measles, tuberculosis.
•    Food and water: Is caused due to contaminated food and water that contains bacteria, virus, worm etc. Example, cholera, typhoid and hepatitis.
•    Contact: Many diseases spread by contact of infected person with the healthy person. Examples, fungal infection, scabies etc.
AIDS and syphilis spread due to sexual contact.
•    Body fluids: Body fluids like blood, semen, mother milk when infected can also cause disease. Example, AIDS.
 

Tissues

Introduction

•    Living organisms in this world comprise of cells.
•    There are unicellular as well as multicellular organisms present in this world.
•    In unicellular organisms, the only single cell is capable of performing several functions such as Respiration, Digestion and Clearing of the cell.
•    In multicellular organisms, there is a division of labour. There are different types as well as groups of cells that perform different functions in a multicellular organism.
•    Cells form groups cells that need to perform a single task often group together.
•    This grouping of cells together to perform a function efficiently is called a Tissue. For Example, Muscles and Blood.
•    The tissue cells have the same structure and they perform the same function.

Plant Tissues

                                                      Types of Plant Tissues

Meristematic Tissue

•    Only certain parts of a plant tend to grow. The tissues located in such parts are called meristematic tissues.
•    They have the capability to divide themselves and form new tissues. They have thin cell wall made of cellulose. Also have dense nucleus and cytoplasm but lack vacuoles.
•    They can further we classify differently based on the areas of the plants where they are located -
o    Apical
o    Lateral
o    Intercalary

                                                                                Location of meristematic tissue
 

                        Why there are no vacuoles in the intercalary meristem?

• Vacuoles are responsible for storage of food in water. The intercalary tissues do not store them. They are rather responsible for manufacturing them.
• Moreover, vacuoles contain sap which provides rigidity to a cell. This property of vacuoles may not allow the intercalary tissues to divide and manufacture new cells. Hence vacuoles are not present in them.

Chapter-2

Tissues

Introduction and Plant Tissues

Introduction

As you all know that we have a complex body organization starting from cellular level to a well-developed individual. If we look at the hierarchy of organization we see that:

Cells → Tissue→ organ→ organ system→ organism

As far as cells are concerned, we have studied that cells are structural and functional units of life. The cells, when formed, undergo the process of differentiation according to the functions that they will perform. The cells that have the same structure, features and perform the same functions form a particular type of tissue. Let us start with the chapter where we will learn all about it.

The cells which are specialized in a function are grouped together and form a particular type of tissue. We have different tissues in our body that performs different functions like:

1. They play the role of protection.

2. They help in control and coordination.

3. They help in transportation.

4. They act as insulators.

5. Many more functions are performed.

Let us learn about Plant tissue

Types of plant tissues

They are classified into mainly two types as given below

• Meristematic tissue
• Permanent tissue

Meristematic tissue and its types

You all have seen that plants have a tendency to grow and keep growing throughout their life. This is because of certain cells in it that keep on dividing and they are called meristematic cells. Let us learn about them. They are formed of cells that have the ability to divide continuously throughout their life and help in increasing the length and girth of the plant.

Characteristics of meristematic cells

• They have thin cellulose cell walls.
• The meristematic cells may be spherical, oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape. The meristermatic cells are compactly arranged.
• Each meristematic cell contains dense or abundant cytoplasm and a single large nucleus.
• The meristematic cells contain few vacuoles or no vacuoles at all.

Occurrence

According to their position in the plant, meristems are of three types:

• Apical meristem
• Lateral meristem
• Intercalary meristem

Apical meristems

• It is present at the growing tip of stems and roots. It is at shoot apex and root apex.
• Its function is to increase the height of the plant.

Lateral meristems

• These are found beneath the bark (called cork cambium).
• The function is to help increase in diameter.

Intercalary meristems

• It is located at the base of leaves or at internodes.
• Its function is to increase the number of branches.

Permanent Tissue

The cells that are formed by the meristematic tissues often have to take a certain role in the plant and thus, they lose their ability to divide and form more cells. They then become the permanent tissues of the plants.

• Differentiation - The process by which cells of the meristematic tissues convert themselves into a permanent tissue by taking a fixed shape, size and function is called differentiation.

• Types of Permanent Tissues:
  • Simple Permanent Tissues
  • Complex Permanent Tissues
  • Parenchyma
  • Chlorenchyma
  • Aerenchyma
  • Collenchyma
  • Sclerenchyma

    

Chlorenchyma

• These tissues are similar to that of parenchyma but they also contain chlorophyll in them.
• Due to the presence of chlorophyll, they are capable of performing the process of photosynthesis in plants.

Aerenchyma

• They are found in aquatic plants.
• They are also similar in structure to that of the parenchyma but they have large air cavities in them.
• These cavities allow the aquatic plants to float in water.

What is Lignin?

The cell walls of dead cells have a substance called lignin in them which provides rigidity to the cells. Lignin acts as the cement for the cells.

Epidermis

• The outermost layer of the cell is known as the Epidermis.
• It covers the entire plant.
• It is a thin layer of single cells but in places with less water, the epidermis of the plants can become thick in order to avoid frequent water loss.
• The cells are flat and they have no intercellular spaces between them.
• The outer walls of the epidermal cells are thick and the inner walls are thin.
• The epidermal cells often have long hair-like structures in roots which facilitate the absorption of water.
• The main function of the epidermis is to protect the plants from fungi, water loss and any injuries by secrets a wax-like water-resistant substance called as Cuticle on the surface of the plants which protects the plants.

Stomata

• Stomata are pore-like structures that are present in the epidermis of the leaves.
• These pores are enclosed by two cells that have a similar shape as a kidney. These are called Guard Cells of Stomata. Guard cells are modified epidermal cells.
• Guard cells are responsible for the exchange of gases and transpiration.

Why do plants in desert areas have a waxy coating of cutin over them? 

The epidermis cells of plants that are found in deserts have a waxy coating of cutin over them because it prevents water loss from the plants surface since water is already scarce in such areas.

Why do branches of old trees are different than the stems of a new plant?

• As a plant grows older the meristematic cells start covering the upper layer of the plants instead of the epidermis.
• These are the dead cells that have no special function in the plants but to provide them rigidity. They make the branches of the plants thick.
• This is often called the Bark or the thick cork of the tree.
• The bark of the trees contains a substance called Suberin which makes it waterproof and does not allow gaseous exchanges. 

Complex Permanent Tissues

Complex Permanent Tissues comprise of different kinds of cells. These different types of cells coordinate with each other and perform a common function in these tissues. Two Complex Permanent Tissues are

Xylem and Phloem.

                                                                                         Xylem and Phloem

Similarities between Xylem & Phloem

• Their main function is to carry food and water in the plant.
• Both have a vascular bundle which is a conductive tissue in plants that helps them survive in different environmental conditions.

Xylem

Xylem is made up of dead cells having a thick cell lining. It consists of following elements-

• Tracheids and Vessels – They have broad tubular structure so that we can allow transportation of food and water in the plants vertically.
• Xylem Parenchyma – It stores food and helps in transportation of water horizontally in the plants.
• Xylem Fibers – They support transportation

Phloem

Phloem is made up of living cells and it allows the movement of food from leaves to other parts of the plant. It has the following elements –

Sieve Tubes – Broad shaped cells with porous walls

• Companion Cells – They facilitate the functions of the sieve tubes
• Phloem Fibers – Provide flexibility to the phloem
• Phloem Parenchyma – Stores starch and proteins

Permanent Tissues

Permanent Tissues

There are certain meristematic cells that can not divide throughout their life. They actually lose their tendency to form new cells. As a result, they form another tissue that is Permanent. They have particular functions except forming new cells. These tissues are derived from the meristematic tissue but their cells have lost the power of division. They are of two types:

• Simple permanent tissue
• Complex permanent tissue

Simple permanent tissues

These tissues are composed of cells which are structurally and functionally similar. Thus, these tissues are all made of one type of cells. Depending upon the composition and function they are further classified into three types:

• Parenchyma
• Collenchyma
• Sclerenchyma

Let us learn about the difference between the three:

Parenchyma

This tissue is widely distributed in plant body such as stem, roots, leaves, flowers and fruits. It performs various functions and also has distinct features in xerophytes and hydrophytes. Let us see the features it possesses.

Characteristics

• Parenchyma cells are living and possess the power of division.
• The cells are rounded or isodiametric that isequally expanded in all sides.
• The parenchymatous cells are oval, round, polygonal or elongated in shape.
• The cell wall is thin and enclosed but dense cytoplasm which contains a small nucleus.
• Intercellular spaces are present

Functions

1. Parenchyma serves as a packing tissue.

2. Parenchyma acts as the main support to the stem.

3. Parenchyma serves as food storage tissue.

4. It helps in transporting materials.

5. It allows gaseous exchange.

6. It stores waste products of plants.

7. If chloroplast is present, the parenchyma tissue is called chlorenchyma and it helps in performing photosynthesis.

8. In hydrophytes large air cavities present called arenchyma that provide buoyancy to plants.

Collenchyma

You must have seen that some plant parts can bend without breaking. This feature is due to the presence of a mechanical tissue called collenchymas. They are generally found below epidermis of dicot stem and petiole. They also occur in midribs of dicot leaves but are absent in monocots.

Characteristics

• They are living cells.
• They are characterized by the deposition of extra cellulose at the corners of the cells.
• The intercellular spaces are generally absent.

Functions

• It is a mechanical tissue so, it provides mechanical support to plant and its parts.
• It also provides strength and flexibility.

Sclerenchyma

You all have used and seen coconut for various purposes like performing some rituals, for eating, drinking coconut water, etc. The husk that is found outside the coconut looks like thin fibres and is hard too. This is made up of cells that is Sclerenchyma. Let us study about it.

Characteristics

• They are actually dead cells.
• The walls of these cells are thickened with deposition of lignin.
• There are no intercellular spaces.

Cells of sclerenchyma are basically of two types:

• Fibres
• Sclereids

Fibres: They consist of very long, narrow, thick and lignified cells. They are usually pointed at both ends.

Sclereids: They are irregular in shape. They are also dead and are found under different parts like cortex, pith, phloem, etc.

Both fibres and sclereids have thin areas on them that are called pits.

Functions

• They provide mechanical support andare protective in nature.

Protective tissue

Plants and plant parts also need protection from external factors. So, there are certain tissues that perform this action. Let us learn about them. It includes epidermis and cork (or phellem).

Epidermis

Epidermis is one cell thick layer and is covered with cuticle. It is a waterproof layer as it has a waxy substance called cutin. The cells of the epidermis are elongated and flattened and do not contain any intracellular space. Function of the epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection.

Cork

As plants grow older, epidermis undergoes certain changes and transforms into phellogen or cork. The cambium cells of cork are rectangular and are dead. The walls of cork cells are heavily thickened by the deposition of suberin which makes these cells impermeable to water and gases. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and mechanical injury.

Stomata

Epidermis of a leaf has small pores, called stomata. Each stoma is bounded by specialized epidermal cells called guard cells. These Guard cells are the epidermal cells only and contain chloroplasts. The stoma allows gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis and respiration.

Complex permanent tissues

You all know that green plants can carry out photosynthesis and also absorb water through roots. But it may make you curious to know that how these substances are transported to whole plant. As we know, they don’t have blood, lymph or so. It is due to this complex tissue that water is transported and food is translocated. Let us learn about it. They consist of more than one type of cells. They are of the following two types:

• Xylem
• Phloem

Xylem and phloem are popularly known as vascular tissues

Xylem

Xylem is composed of cells with four different parts:

• Tracheids
• Vessels
• Xylem parenchyma
• Xylem sclerenchyma.

Except xylem parenchyma, all other xylem elements are dead and bounded by thick lignified walls. Vessels are shorter and wider than tracheid. Vessels are very long tube-like structures. Tracheids are elongated cells with tapering ends. They also conduct water. Since, tracheids do not have open ends like vessel, so the water has to pass from cell to cell via the pits.

Functions

• The main function of xylem is to carry water and mineral salts upward from the root to different parts of shoots.
• Since walls of tracheids vessels and sclerenchyma of xylem are lignified they give mechanical strength to the plant body.

Phloem

It consists of four components:

• Sieve tubes
• Companion cells
• Phloem parenchyma
• Phloem fibres.

Sieve tubes

Sieve tubes are slenderical tube –like structures composed of elongated thin-walled cells, placed end to end. Their end walls are perforated by numerous pores and are called sieve plates.

Companion Cells

They are small thin-walled cells containing dense and very active cytoplasm and large elongated nucleus.

Functions

• Photo-synthetically prepared food materials are transported from the leaves to the storage organs.

Animal Tissues

Types of Animal Tissues

                                                                                     Types of Animal Tissues

1. 1. Epithelial Tissue

• They are the protective tissues of the human body. They cover many organs and cavities that are present inside the body.
• Where are the epithelial tissues found in the human body?

1. 1. The lining of the blood vessels
   2. The lining of the mouth
   3. Kidney tubules
   4. Skin
   5. Lung alveoli

 Structure and functions of the epithelial tissues -

1. 1. The main function of the epithelial tissues is to act as a barrier and separate different organs and systems from each other.
   2. There is no space between the cells of epithelial tissues
   3. The cells are permeable. This makes it possible for them to exchange materials between different parts of the body and also between the body and the external environment.
   4. The epithelial tissues remain separated from the tissues beneath them because of a thin membrane over them.

                                                                 Types of Epithelium

Connective Tissue

Structure and function of connective tissues

• • They are loosely bound cells present in an intercellular Matrix.
  • This matrix can be of different types – Dense, Rigid, Fluid or Jelly-like.
  • Depending upon the functionality of the connective tissue, the nature of the matrix varies in them.