Political Science

*   INTRODUCTION 
    This Unit introduces the critical role of equality in democracy, with specific reference to India. The Constitution of India guarantees equality to all citizens. Despite this, the daily lives of people in India are far from equal. Equality is a key feature of democracy         and influences all aspects of its functioning. In this chapter you will read more about equality-what it is, why it is important in a democracy, and whether or not everyone is equal in India.

*   INEQUALITY AND DISCRIMINATION    
    There are many people who live in democratic India and who have the right to vote but whose daily living and working conditions are far from equal. Apart from being poor, people in India experience inequality in different ways. - 
    1. Inequality due to caste system
    2. Religious differences
    3. Racial differences
    4. Gender disparity 

1.    One of the more common forms of inequality in India is the caste system. 
      Omprakash Valmiki is a famous Dalit writer. In his autobiography, Joothan, he writes, "I had to sit away from the others in the class, and that too on the floor. The mat ran out before reaching the spot I sat on. Sometimes I would have to sit way behind             everybody, right near the door…sometimes they would beat me without any reason." When he was in Class IV, the headmaster asked Omprakash to sweep the school and the playground. He writes, "The playground was way larger than my small                  physique could handle and in cleaning it, my back began to ache. My face was covered with dust. Dust had gone inside my mouth. The other children in my class were studying and I was sweeping. Headmaster was sitting in his room and watching me. I        was not even allowed to get a drink of water. I swept the whole day,…From the doors and windows of the school rooms, the eyes of the teachers and the boys saw this spectacle." Omprakash was made to sweep the school and the playground for the           next couple of days and this only came to an end when his father, who happened to be passing by, saw his son sweeping. He confronted the teachers and then walking away from the school holding Omprakash's hand, he said loudly for all of them to hear,    "You are a teacher…So   I am leaving now. But remember this much Master…(He) will study right here…in this school. And not just him, but there will be more coming after him."

    The second story is based on an incident that took place in one of India's larger cities and is common practice in most parts of the country. It is a story about Mr and Mrs Ansari who were looking to rent an apartment in the city. They had the money and so     paying the rent was no problem. They went to a property dealer for help to find a place. The dealer informed them that he knew about quite a few apartments that were available for rent. They visited the first apartment and the Ansaris liked it very                    much and decided to take it. However, when the landlady found out their names, she made an excuse about how she could not rent the house to someone who ate meat because the building did not have any non-vegetarian residents. Both the Ansaris and   the property dealer were surprised to hear this because they could smell fish being cooked in the neighbour's house. The same excuse was repeated in the second and the third apartments. Finally, the property dealer told them that they might want to  change their names and call themselves Mr and Mrs Kumar. The Ansaris were reluctant to do this and decided to look some more. In the end, it took a whole month of looking at apartments before they found a landlady who was willing to give them a place on rent.

Recognising dignity
 When persons are treated unequally, their dignity is violated. The dignity of both Omprakash Valmiki and the Ansaris was violated because of the way in which they were treated. By picking on him and making him sweep the school, because of his caste, Omprakash Valmiki's schoolmates and teachers hurt his dignity badly and made him feel as if he was less than equal to all other students in the school. Being a child, Omprakash Valmiki could do very little about the situation that he was in. It was his father who, on seeing his son sweep, felt angry by this unequal treatment and confronted the teachers. The Ansaris' dignity was also hurt when persons refused to lease their apartments to them. However, when the property dealer suggested that they change their name, it was their dignity or self-respect that made them refuse this suggestion.

Omprakash and the Ansaris do not deserve to be treated like this. They deserve the same respect and dignity as anyone else.

2.    Inequality was also due to religious differences. Forgetting true worth of religion, certain extreme elements began to praise their own religions and preach hatred for others. India was partitioned on the basis of religion. There is, thus, no denying the fact          that religious differences lead to inequality.

3.    Inequality is sometimes caused by racial differences as well. For a long time there was racial difference between the whites and the blacks in the United States. In the recent past there was racial discrimination in South Africa.

4.  Sometimes the cause of inequality can be the result of gender disparity. It is said that women in India on the average are paid less then 40% of what men are paid. Both economically and health-wise, women in many countries of the world are                           discriminated against. Infant mortality is the higher among girls than among boys.
    When persons are treated unequally, their dignity is violated. The dignity of both Omprakash Valmiki and the Ansaris was violated because of the way in which they were treated.Omprakash and the Ansaris do not deserve to be treated like this. They                deserve the same respect and dignity as anyone else.

    What is Aparthied ? 
Solution
    Apartheid was a policy of seperation or segregation followed by the white minority government against the non white majority population of South Africa. 

Why does people refuse to think of dalits as equals.
Solution
    One of the main reasons for this is that attitudes change very slowly. It is only when people begin to believe that no one is inferior, and that every person deserves to be treated with dignity, that present attitudes can change. Establishing equality in a                democratic society is a continuous struggle and one in which individuals as well as various communities in India contribute. 

*    EQUALITY IN INDIAN DEMOCRACY
    The Indian Constitution recognises every person as equal. This means that every individual in the country, including male and female persons from all castes, religions, tribes, educational and economic backgrounds are recognised as equal.

*    EQUAL RIGHT TO VOTE    
    In a democratic country, like India,all adults irrespective of what religion they belong to, how much education they have had, what caste they are, or whether they are rich or poor are allowed to vote. This is called universal adult franchise and is an                    essential aspect of all democracies. The idea of universal adult franchise is based on the idea of equality because it states that every adult in a country, irrespective of their wealth and the communities she/he belongs to, has one vote.

This recognition of equality includes some of  the following provisions in the Constitution :
(I)    Art.14 of the constitution provides that the State shall not deny any person equality before the law or equal protection of the laws within the territory of India. Every person is equal before the law. What this means is that every person, from the President         of the country to Kanta, a domestic worker, has to obey the same laws. 

(II)    Art.15 states that no person can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, race, caste, place of birth or whether they are female or male. Every person has access to all public places including playground, hotels, shops and markets. All                  persons can use publicly available wells, roads and bathing ghats. 

(III)    Art.16 guarantees Equality of opportunity in matters of public Employment, it say that :

•      There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
•      No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or any of them, be ineligible for any employment under the State.

(IV)    Art.17 ensures that untouchability has been abolished.

(V)    Art.18 ensures abolition of titles.

*    IMPLEMENTATION OF EQUALITY
    The two ways in which the government has tried to implement the equality that is guaranteed in the Constitution is first through laws and second through government programmes or schemes to help disadvantaged communities. There are several laws in        India that protect every person’s right to be treated equally. In addition to laws, the government has also set up several schemes to improve the lives of communities and individuals who have been treated unequally for several centuries. These schemes         are to ensure greater opportunity for people who have not had this in the past.

Mid-Day Meal :
    One of the steps taken by the government includes the midday meal scheme. This refers to the programme introduced in all government elementary schools to provide children with cooked lunch.This programme has had many positive effects.

(I)    These include the fact that more poor children have begun enrolling and more regularly attending school with the midday meal being provided in school, their attendance has improved. 

(II)    Their mothers, who earlier had to interrupt their work to feed their children at home during the day, now no longer need to do so. 

(III)    This programme has also helped reduce caste prejedices because both lower and upper caste children in the school eat this meal together, and in quite a few places, Dalit women have been employed to cook the meal.

(IV)    The midday meal programme also helps reduce the hunger of poor students who often come to school     and cannot concentrate because their stomachs are empty.
         Even today there are several schools in the country in which Dalit children, like Omprakash Valmiki are discriminated against and treated unequally. These children are forced ito unequal situations in which their dignity is not respected. This is because           people refuse to think of them as equal even though the law requires it.    
        One of the main reasons for this is that attitudes change very slowly. It is only when people begin to believe that no one is inferior, and that every person deserves to be treated with dignity, that present attitudes can change. Establishing equality in a               democratic society is a continuous struggle and one in which individuals as well as various communities in India contribute.  

*    ISSUE OF EQUALITY IN OTHER DEMOCRACIES
     In many democratic countries around the world, the issue of equality continues to be the key issue around which communities struggle. So, for example, in the United States of America, the African-Americans whose ancestors were the slaves who were         brought over from Africa, continue to describe their lives today as largely unequal. This despite the fact that there was a movement in the late 1950s to push for equal rights for African-Americans were treated extremely unequally in the United States and        denied equality through law.

    Rosa Parks was an African-American woman. Tired from a long day at work she refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man on 1 December 1955. Her refusal that day started a huge agitation against the unequal ways in which African-Americans      were treated and which came to be known as the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, religion or national origin. It also stated that all schools would be open to African-American children and          that they would no longer have to attend separate school specially set up for them.

*    GLOSSARY
    Universal adult franchise : This is a very important aspect of democratic societies. It means that all adult (those who are 18 and above) citizens have the right to vote irrespective of their social or economic backgrounds.

    Dignity : This refers to thinking of oneself and other persons as worthy of respect.

    Constitution : This is a document that lays down the basie rules and regulations for people and the government in the country to follow.

    Civil Rights Movement : A movement that began in USA in 1950s in which African-American people demanded equal rights and an end to racial discrimination.

What do you know about mid day meal scheme?
Solution
    One of the steps taken by the government includes the midday meal scheme. This refers to the  programme introduced in all government elementary schools to provide children with cooked lunch.

What is Article 16 ?
solution
    Art.16 guarantees Equality of opportunity in matters of public Employment, it say that :

•      There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
•      No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or any of them, be ineligible for any employment under the State.

Who was Rosa Parks?
Solution
    She was an African American woman. She started civil rights movement.
 

*    INTRODUCTION
      In this chapter you will learn about some of the ways in which people have struggled against inequality.
1.   The Indian Constitution recognises all Indians as equal before the law and states that no person can be discriminated against because of their religion, sex, caste or whether they are rich or poor. All adults in  India have the equal right to vote during                      elections and this ‘power over the ballot box’ has been used  by people to elect or replace their representatives.

2.    But this feeling of equality that the ballot box provides, because the vote of one person is as good as that of another, does not extend to most people’s lives.

3.    The increasing privatisation of health services and the neglect of government hospitals have made it difficult for most poor people like Kanta, Hakim Sheik and Aman to get good quality health care.

4.    Similarly, the man who sells juice does not have the resources to compete with all of the major companies who sell branded drinks through expensive advertising.

5.    Poverty and the lack of resources continue to be a key reason why so many people’s lives in India are highly unequal.

6.    On the other hand, the Ansaris were discriminated against not because they did not have the resources.
       In fact, despite having the money to pay the required rent, they were not able to find an apartment for over a month. People were reluctant to lease them an apartment because of their religion. Similarly, the main reason that the teachers forced                        Omprakash  Valmiki to sweep the school yard was because he was Dalit.

7.    The work women do is often considered of less value than that done by the men. All of these persons are discriminated against primarily because of their social and cultural background as well as because they are women. Discrimination on the basis of        a person’s religion, caste and sex is another significant factor for why people are treated unequally in India.

8.    Often, poverty and lack of dignity and respect for certain communities and groups come together in such powerful ways that it is difficult to identify where one aspect of inequality ends and the other begins. As you have read, Dalit, Adivasi and Muslim             girls drop out of school in large numbers. This is a combined outcome of poverty, social discrimination and the lack of good quality school facilities for these communities.

*    Struggles for Equality
1.    Throughout the world - in every community, village, city and town-you will find that there are some people who are known and respected because of their fight for equality.

2.    In India, there are several struggles in which people have come together to fight for issues that they believe are important.

3.    The Tawa Matsya Sangh in Madhya Pradesh is another example of people coming together to fight for an issue. There are many such struggles such as those among beedi workers, fisherfolk, agricultural labourers, slum dwellers and each group is                 struggling for justice in its own way. There are also many attempts to form cooperatives or other collective ways by which people can have more control over resources.

*   Tawa Matsya Sangh
1.    When dams are built or forest areas declared sanctuaries for animals, thousands of people are displaced. Whole villages are uprooted and people are forced to go and build new homes, start new lives elsewhere. Most of these people are poor. In urban         areas too, bastis in which poor people live are often uprooted. Some of them are relocated to areas outside the city. Their work as well as their children’s schooling is severely disrupted because of the distance from the outskirts of the city to these                   locations.
2.    This displacement of people and communities is a problem that has become quite widespread in our country. People usually come together to fight against this. There are several organisations across the country fighting for the rights of the displaced. In         this chapter we will read about the Tawa Matsya Sangh - a federation of Fisherworker’s cooperatives an organisation fighting for the rights of the displaced forest dwellers of the Satpura forest in Madhya Pradesh.

3.    Originating in the Mahadeo hills of Chindwara district, the Tawa flows through Betul, before joining the Narmada in Hoshangabad. The Tawa dam began to be built in 1958 and was completed in 1978. It submerged large areas of forest and agricultural             land. The forest dwellers were left with nothing. Some of the displaced people settled around the reservoir and apart from their meagre farms found a livelihood in fishing. They earned very little.

4.    In 1994, the government gave the rights for fishing in the Tawa reservoir to private contractors. These contractors drove the local people away and got cheap labour from outside. The contractors began to threaten the villagers, who did not want to leave,        by bringing in hoodlums. The villagers stood united and decided that it was time to set up an organisation and do something to protect their rights.

5.    The newly formed Tawa Matsya Sangh (TMS) organised rallies and a chakka jam (road blockade), demanding their right to continue fishing for their livelihood. In response to their protests, the government created a committee to assess the issue. The             committee recommended that fishing rights be granted to the villagers for their livelihood. In 1996, the Madhya Pradesh government decided to give to the people displaced by the Tawa dam the fishing rights for the reservoir. A five-year lease agreement
       was signed two months later. On January 2, 1997, people from 33 villages of Tawa started the new year with the first catch.

6.    With the TMS taking over the fishworkers were able to increase their earnings substantially. This was because they set up the cooperative which would buy the catch from them at a fair price. The cooperative would then arrange to transport and sell this        in markets where they would get a good price. They have now begun to earn three times more than they earned earlier. The TMS has also begun giving the fishworkers loans for repair and the buying of new nets. By managing to earn a higher wage as          well as preserving the fish in the reservoir, the TMS has shown that when people’s organisations get their rights to livelihood, they can be good managers.

*    The Indian Constitution as a Living Document
1.    The foundation of all movements for justice and the inspiration for all the poetry and songs on equality is the recognition that all people are equal. As you know, the Indian Constitution recognises the equality of all persons.

2.    The dignity and self-respect of each person and their community can only be realised if they have adequate resources to support and nurture their families and if they are not discriminated against.

 

A shirt that is available for sale in the market has a long ‘journey’- right from the production of cotton to the buyer in the supermarket. There is a chain of markets involved in this ‘journey’ with buying and selling taking place at every step.
 

A cotton farmer’s life
    Majority of farmers have small holdings of land. They need to do backbreaking work to get a good harvest of cotton. Picking cotton from cotton farm is a tough task. It takes many days to harvest cotton because all the cotton bolls do not burst at one go.

    Cotton farming requires high levels of inputs; such as fertilisers and pesticides. Farmers often have to borrow money from the local traders for meeting these expenses.

    The traders charge a high rate of interest. They also put a condition that the farmer would sell cotton only to that trader and not anywhere else. This forces a farmer to sell cotton at a price which is lower than the market rate.

    Traders are powerful men in the villages. A farmer depends on such traders for money in exigencies; like illness, education, marriage, etc. Moreover, farmers also need to borrow money in order to survive during lean season.

APMC
    An agricultural produce market committee (APMC) is a marketing board established by state governments of India. APMC acts run on two principles:

    Ensure that intermediaries (and money lenders) do not compel farmers to sell their produce at the farm gate at extremely low price. This ensures that farmers are not exploited.
    All food produce should first be brought to the market yard and then be sold through auction.

   Under APMC Acts, a state is geographically divided and Market (Mandis) are established at different places within the states. Farmers have to sell their produce through the auction in mandi. To operate in Mandi, a trader has to get license. Wholesale,             retail traders (e.g. shopping mall owner) or food processing company etc cannot buy farm output directly from farmer. They’ve to get it through the Mandi.

The Cloth Market of Erode
    Erode; a city in Tamil Nadu has a bi-weekly cloth market. It is one of the largest cloth markets in the world. It boasts of a large variety of clothes. The people involved in this market either directly or indirectly are;

   The Weavers: Cloth that is made by weavers from the villages around is bought here for sale. The weavers make cloths as per the requirements of merchants.

   Cloth Merchants: They have their offices around this cloth market. They buy from weavers and sell to garment manufacturers and exporters around the country. They purchase the yarn and give instructions to the weavers regarding what type of cloth is to       be made from the yarn.

    Other Traders: Other traders from other south Indian towns also come here for purchases.

‘Putting out’ system
    It is a system whereby the merchant supplies raw material and receives the finished product. The merchant books orders from his customers. He distributes work among the weavers and instructs them to make a cloth as per an order’s specification.

Advantages for the weavers
    Cost Saving: They do not have to spend money on purchase of yarn. They also save on the money spent on selling (money spent on finding customers and other sales related costs) of the finished cloth.
    Clarity of Work: The weavers have clarity regarding what cloth they should make and how much is to be woven.

    Therefore, the weavers depend on the merchants for raw materials and markets. This high level of dependence proves that the merchants have a lot of power.

Disadvantages for the weavers
    Low Wages: The merchants pay a very low amount to the weavers for making the cloth.
    Lack of vital information: The weavers have no way of knowing who they are making the cloth for and at what price it will be sold.

    It is a merchants’ market in the sense that it works more in the favour of the merchants. They sell the cloth to the garment factories.

Input cost for weavers
    The main cost of inputs is the looms. The weavers invest all their savings or borrow money at exorbitant interest rates for buying the looms. A loom costs Rs 20000/-. A weaver who has two looms has to shell out Rs 40000/-. Since the work on these looms      cannot be done alone, another adult family member works with him. They work upto 12 hours a day. They earn a meagre amount of Rs 3500/- per month in spite of working so hard.

    The weaver exists at the core of the process of shirt manufacture. He is the foundation of the textile industry. The cotton cloth supplied by the weavers is sold by the Erode merchant to a garment exporting factory in Delhi. The garment exporter makes            shirts with this cloth and exports it to foreign buyers who are mainly the businessmen in the US and Europe. These businessmen run a chain of shops.

Scenario at garment factories
    The workers in a factory are employed on a temporary basis. They may be asked to leave anytime at the whims and fancies of the employer. The wages paid to them is fixed based on their skills. The highest amount paid monthly is Rs 3000/- which is            paid to the tailors. Women do ancillary jobs like cutting, buttoning, ironing, etc. They get meagre amount in lieu of their work.

A Shirt in The United States
    In a large shop in the Unites States, a number of shirts are on display each costing $26, which is equivalent to Rs 1200. It purchase a shirt for note more than Rs. 200 and thus earns huge profit. The garment exporter earns moderate profit after deducting     the cost of input and wages.

    As mentioned earlier a chain of markets is involved right from the production of cotton to the sale of a shirt, with buying and selling taking place at every stage. However, all the parties in this ‘chain’ do not gain or lose, nor do they gain or lose to the same       extent.

Market and Equality
    Equality is a basic principle in a democracy. It also involves getting a fair wage in the market. In descending order of the gains/earnings, the parties involved in the chain of markets are as under:
    Foreign businessmen
    Garment exporter
    Workers at the garment export factory

    The foreign businessman makes huge profits whereas the garment exporter’s profits are moderate. Unfortunately, the earnings of the workers at the garment factory is barely enough for their survival. Similarly, the cotton farmers and the weavers who              have worked so hard hardly earned anything to fulfill their day-to-day needs. The merchants/traders earned much less than the exporter but more than the weavers/farmers.

    Benefits of Market: It is because of the market that people get an opportunity to work and earn. They are able to sell their produce/finished product. Whether it is the small farmer, weaver or the merchant and exporter; a market exists for all of them.

    Drawbacks of Market: Market are always one-sided. In other words, it is always the rich and the influential that gain maximum from the market. They own large factories, set up big shops, etc. They exploit the poor workers by overburdening them and              paying them very low wages. The poor people are dependent on them for:

    Loans for inputs in farms and/or survival
    Raw material and market for goods as in the case of weavers
    Employment as in the case of workers in a factory, shop etc.

Weaver’s cooperative
    These help the weavers to earn a higher income and reduce their dependence on the merchant. In a weaver’s cooperative, the weavers form a group and collectively initiate some activities. These activities include;
    Procurement of yarn from the yarn dealer
    Distribution of yarn among the weavers
    Marketing

   The government also intervenes at times to help the weavers. For example in Tamil Nadu the government runs a Free School Uniform programme for which it procures the cloth from the powerloom weaver’s cooperatives. The Co-optex stores are also an       example of government intervention for the interest of the weavers. The government buys cloth from the handloom weaver’s cooperatives and sells it through Co-optex stores.

Keywords:
    Cooperative: In a co-operative, people with common interests come together and work for mutual benefit.
    Ginning Mill: It is a factory where seeds are removed from cotton bolls. The cotton is sent for spinning after pressing it into bales.

    Exporter: A person who sells goods to other countries.
    Profit: It is also called gain. It is the amount left after deducting all the costs.
    Loss: It is the opposite of profit. If the costs are higher than the earnings, it would lead to a loss.

 

*  INTRODUCTION
    (i)    These two chapters focus on aspects of life and commercial cycles associated with markets.
    (ii)    While some of these processes may be visible and, therefore, easily observable, there are also others that are relatively unfamiliar. 
    (iii)    In Chapter ‘Markets Around Us’, at one level, we study different market sites:-
        (a)     a weekly market, 
        (b)     neighbourhood shops,
        (c)    a shopping complex, etc. 
    (iv)    At another level, we explore the intricate questions as-
        ‘How do goods reach these markets?’ We examine how a chain of markets operates and  the role of wholesale markets within this. 
        (See NCERT Case Study of a wholesale vegetable Market)

*    WHAT IS A MARKET ?
    (i)    We usually associate ‘market’ with marketplaces, but buying and selling takes place in diverse ways. 
    (ii)    Markets offer people different opportunities. 
    (iii)    This is done through the ‘story of a shirt’, and the chain of markets involved in the process.

*    MARKET AROUND US
    We go to the market to buy many things – 
    (i)     vegetables,                   (ii)     soap,     
    (iii)     toothpaste,                 (iv)     masala, 
    (v)     bread,                         (vi)      rice, 
    (vii)     dal,                            (viii)   clothes, 
    (ix)     notebooks,                 (x)     biscuits, etc. 

*   TYPES OF MARKETS
    There are many kinds of markets that we may visit for our everyday needs:-     
    (i)    shops,                                             (ii)    hawkers,
    (iii)    stalls in our neighbourhood,         (iv)    a weekly market, 
    (v)    a large shopping complex,            (vi)    perhaps even a mall. 

*    WEEKLY MARKET
    (i)    A weekly market is so called because it is held on a specific day of the week. 
    (ii)    Weekly markets do not have permanent shops. 
    (iii)    Traders set up shops for the day and then close them up in the evening. 
    (iv)    Then they may set up at a different place the next day. 

*    WHY ARE MANY THINGS IN WEEKLY MARKETS AVAILABLE AT     CHEAPER     RATES ? BECAUSE
    When shops are in permanent buildings, they incur a lot of expenditure -
    (i)    They have to pay rent, electricity, fees to the government. 
    (ii)    Pay wages to their workers. 
    (iii)    These shop owners store the things they sell at home. 
    (iv)    They are helped by their family members and, do not need to hire workers. There is competition among the shopkeepers. 

*    ADVANTAGE OF WEEKLY MARKETS
    (i)    One of the advantages of weekly markets is that most things you need are available at one place. 
    (ii)    Whether you want vegetables, groceries or cloth items, utensils – all of them can be found here. 
    (iii)    You do not have to go to different areas to buy different things. People also prefer going to a market where they have a choice and a variety of goods.

*   SHOPS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
    (i)    We have seen that the weekly markets offer a variety of goods. 
    (ii)    However, we also buy things from other kinds of markets.     
    (iii)    There are many shops that sell goods and services in our neighbourhoods. 
    (iv)    We may buy milk from the dairy, groceries from departmental stores, stationery, eatables or medicines from other shops. 
    (v)    Many of these are permanent shops, while others are roadside stalls such as that of the vegetable hawker, the fruit vendor, the mechanic, etc. 

*    HOW ARE SHOPS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD USEFUL ?
    (i)    They are near our home and we can go there on any day of the week. 
    (ii)    Usually, the buyer and seller know each other and these shops also provide goods on credit.
    (iii)    This means that you can pay for the purchases later, as we saw in Sujata’s case, for example,98 Social and Political Life Why do you think the guard wanted to stop Kavita and Sujata from entering the shop? 

*   SHOPPING COMPLEXES AND MALLS
    (i)    There are other markets in the urban area that have many shops, popularly called shopping complexes. 
    (ii)    These days, in many urban areas, you also have large multi-storeyed air-conditioned buildings with shops on different floors, known as malls. In these urban markets, you get both branded  and non-branded goods. 
    (iii)    Branded goods are expensive, often promoted by advertising and claims of      better quality. 
    (iv)    The companies producing these products sell them through shops in large urban markets and,at times, through special showrooms. 
    (v)    As compared to nonbranded goods, fewer people can afford to  buy branded ones.

*    CHAIN OF MARKET

                         

*   MARKET EVERYWHERE
    (i)    We can place orders for a variety of things through the phone and these days through the Internet, and the goods are delivered at your home.
    (ii)    In clinics and nursing homes, you may have noticed sales representatives waiting for doctors.
    (iii)    Such persons are also engaged in the selling of goods. 
    (iv)    Thus, buying and selling takes place in different ways, not necessarily through shops in the market.

*   MARKET AND EQUALITY
    (i)    In this chapter, we have looked at shop owners in an weekly market and those in a shopping     complex. 
    (ii)    They are very different people. 
    (iii)    One is a small trader with little money to run the shop whereas the other is able to spend a lot of money to set up the shop. 
    (iv)    They also earn unequal amounts. 
    (v)    The weekly market trader earns little compared to the profit of a regular shop owner in a shopping complex.
    (vi)    Similarly, buyers are differently placed. 
    (vii)    There are many who are not able to afford the cheapest of goods while others are busy shoppping in malls. 
    (viii)    Thus, whether we can be buyers or sellers in these different markets depends, among other things, on the money that we have. 
    (ix)    We have also examined the chain of markets that is formed before goods can reach us. 
    (x)    It is through this chain that what is produced in one place reaches people everywhere. 
    (xi)    When things are sold, it encourages production and new opportunities are created for people to earn. 
    (xii)    However, do they offer equal opportunities? We will try to understand this through the story of a shirt in the next chapter. 

Illustration - 1
    What do you mean by Weekly market ?
Solution
    These markets are not daily markets but are to be found at a particular place on one or maybe two days of the week. These markets most often sell everything that a household needs ranging from vegetables to clothes to utensils. 

Illustration - 2
    What is a Mall?
Solution
    This is an enclosed shopping space. This is usually a large building with many floors that has shops, restaurants and, at times, even a cinema theatre. These shops most often sell branded products.

Illustration - 3
    What do you mean by Wholesale?
Solution
    This refers to buying and selling in large quantities. Most products, including vegetables, fruits and flowers have special wholesale markets.

Illustration - 4
    Define Chain of markets?
Solution
    A series of markets that are connected like links in a chain because products pass from one market to another.

 

Advertising is an integral part of marketing. Because of the cut-throat competition in the present times, good advertising is inevitable. We see a number of advertisements on TV, newspapers, as billboards on streets etc. Many advertisements come on radio as well. Even buses, taxis and rickshaws carry advertisements on them. The internet which is an inseparable part of our lives today also has many advertisements popping up on different websites.

Features of advertisements
    They help in drawing our attention to the product advertised.
    They describe the positive aspects of the product so that people become keen to buy them.

Building Brands
    The term branding in layman’s terms refers to stamping a product with a particular name or sign. Advertising mainly involves building brands. The main purpose of branding is to differentiate it from other products in the market. Since there are a range of              products available in the market, making one’s product stand out in the eyes of the customer, is very crucial. This is done by branding the products.

Example of Branded Pulse
    Simply branding a product i.e. giving it a name is not enough. It in itself does not convince people to buy the product. It, at the outset, differentiates the product from the unbranded products. But there are a number of brands available in the market. It is           very important to differentiate one brand from another. This is where the role of advertising comes in. Advertising helps in

    Differentiating the product from that of the competitors.
    Convincing people to buy the concerned product.

Building brand values
    Advertisers project the special values for their brand so that their brand is given preference over others. For example one brand of daal can be highlighted as ‘being healthy for our kids’; and the other brand can be highlighted as ‘serving guests well’. Both      these aspects: health of kids and serving guests well are used by brands to create brand values. These brand values are conveyed by way of visuals and words.

   Use of good visuals and words create a positive image of the product in the minds of the people and make the product appealing.

Brand values and social values
    Advertisements have a significant place in our social and cultural life. We discuss the advertisements we watch/hear or read and also tend to judge people based on the brand products they use. In fact some products are remembered purely in terms of        the words or visuals used in their advertisements.

Influence of advertisements
 Branded products cost much more than the products that are sold loose/ non-branded ones. This is because of the cost incurred in packaging and advertising.

Advertisements often target our personal emotions. They link our emotions to the products and tend to influence the ways in which we value ourselves as persons. Often we see many celebrities (cricketers, film stars, models, etc.) selling products through advertisements. Their popularity is used by the advertisers to convince people to buy the products. Let us understand the concept of linking emotions and celebrity endorsements with the help of the following advertisement.

How is an advertisement made?
Given the extent of influence advertisement has on our lives it is obvious that making an advertisement is not an easy job. The main objective of an advertisement is to entice people to buy a particular brand. In other words, after seeing an advertisement people should be drawn towards the brand. This requires a lot of time, effort and money on the part of the advertiser. Briefly, creating an advertisement involves the following steps:

Determining the consumer profile: This is done by conducting market surveys.
Visualizing a campaign: The campaign intended must appeal to the target audience.

Devising a new strategy: This involves

Emphasising on an aspect that is different from that of the competitor. This could be highlighting the product features, personal and social values etc.
Giving a brand name: This step also involves naming the brand. The brand name should represent the concept used in the advertisement.
Making a presentation to the client and getting their feedback
Finalising and releasing the advertisement campaign: When the marketing strategy is considered successful, the advertisement campaign is finalized and released in different media along with the launch of the brand.

Running the advertisement on a single medium does not work. The advertiser needs to use almost all the available media to strengthen the recall value of a brand. You may have observed that a new campaign becomes omnipresent on all types of media. You can see the same advertisement on TV, in newspaper and magazine, on huge hoardings and will get to hear the same catch-line on radio. This is further augmented by display advertisements on the internet.

Advertising and Democracy
Democracy has equality as its integral part. There are many ways in which advertising links to the issues of equality.

Cost:     Advertising involves enormous costs. Advertising a brand usually involves crores of rupees. The money that is spent on advertising is for

Producing and showing advertisements
Repeating the advertisements many times so that it registers in the minds of the people. This is important because already there are a number of advertisements of a number of brands. So repeating one’s advertisement increases the chances of                     consumers remembering the particular brand.

The high costs involved mean that only large companies can advertise. People owning small businesses cannot afford to do so. Hence people who sell home-made pickles, papads, jams, etc. are not as valued by consumers as the branded products. These homemade items have to be sold in local weekly markets only.

Loss of livelihood of small businessmen: Advertisements create a wrong notion in the people’s minds regarding product quality. They make us believe that packaged and branded products are far superior in quality than the non-branded ones. But in reality, the quality of the product is not related much to the packaging that it comes in. This tendency of the people of shifting to branded products and ignoring the non-branded ones results in the loss of livelihood of many small businessmen.

Promoting lack of respect for the poor: Since advertisements show the life of the rich and elite only, we do not come to know about the lives of the poor and underprivileged. This results in our tendency to consider their lives as worthless.

Since advertisements use various emotions like caring for the family for promoting their products; those who cannot afford the branded products feel that they are not able to offer the quality product and the care that the brand products appear to offer. For example if the advertisement of a branded daal uses the tagline and concept of ‘give the best to your family’; those who cannot afford this brand will feel incapable of giving the best to their family.

Overlooking important issues: Since advertising focuses on the lives of the rich and the well known, it makes us forget the issues of poverty, discrimination and dignity – the issues that are the essence of the functioning of equality in a democracy.

More than just selling the product it tells us how we should lead our lives, what is being smart, what our dreams and aspirations should be, etc.

Tall claims by advertisers:
 Many advertisements by protein drink brands are good examples certain tall claims made by these brands. For example; one of the brands claims that a child can become taller and sharper by using that drink. Another brand claims that it will promote better growth of brain and child can become as intelligent as Einstein. The truth is far from what the brands claim. Nobody can become taller and sharper by using a protein drink. A person becomes tall because tallness is in his/her gene. A child can grow better with help of proper nutrition and exercise. A child can become intelligent by rigorous practice and regular study.

 

 

*    Introduction
(i)    The focus in ‘Understanding Media’ is on explaining the strong links between media and technology and media and big business. 

(ii)    It explains how the media ‘sets the agenda’ through influencing our perception of issues worth devoting time and attention to, and issues that are neglected or overridden. 

(iii)    In ‘Understanding Advertising’ we have focused both on critically analysing how advertising strategies influence customers, as well as demonstrating what goes into the making of an advertisement. 

(iv)    The significance of a ‘brand’ and the need to promote the uniqueness of a product is a key part of advertising. The chapter identifies the mechanisms that advertisements use to appeal to the consumer, and explains how these are powerfully linked to             the consumer’s self-image.

    Everything ranging from the stall at the local fair to the programme that you see on TV can be called media.
    Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the various ways through which we communicate in society.

*    Media  and Technology

 

 

 

1.    Newspapers, television and radio can reach millions of people because they use certain technologies.

2.    (a) Changing technology, or machines, and making technology more modern, helps media to reach more people
       (b) It also improves the quality of sound and the images that we see.
       (c) It also changes the ways in which we think about our lives.

3.    (a) Television has enabled us to think of ourselves as members of a larger global world.
       (b) Television images travel huge distances through satellites and cables.
       (c) This allows us to view news and entertainment channel from other parts of the world.
      (d) Most of the cartoons that you see on television are mostly from Japan or the United States.

*   Media and Money

 

 

 

(A)     The different technologies that mass media use are expensive. The TV studio in which the newsreader sits-it has lights, cameras, sound recorders, transmission satellites, etc., all of which cost a lot of money.

(B)     Due to these costs, the mass media needs a great deal of money to do its work. As a result, most television channels and newspapers are part of big business houses.

(C)     Mass media is constantly thinking of ways to make money. One way in which the mass media earns money is by advertising different things like cars, chocolates, clothes, mobile phones, etc.

 

*    Media and Democracy
1.    In a democracy, the media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.
(a)     Writing letters to the concerned minister.
(b)     Organising a public protest. 
(c)     Starting a signature campaign.
(d)    Asking the government to re-think its programme, etc.

2.    People reaction on news & stories of media.

3.    A balanced report is one that discusses all points of view of a particular story and then leaves it to the readers to make up their minds. Writing a balanced report, however, depends on the media being independent.

4.    An independent media is important in a democracy. It is on the basis of the information that the media provides that we take action as citizens, so it is important that this information is reliable and not biased. The reality is that media is far from                          independent. This is mainly because of these reasons: 
(a)     The control that the government has on the media. When the government prevents either a news item, or scenes from a movie, or the lyrics of a song from being shared with the larger public, this is referred to as censorship.
(b)     Persons who research the media have said that this happens because business houses control the media. At times, it is in the interest of these businesses to focus on only one side of the story.
(c)     Media’s continual need for money and its links to advertising means that it becomes difficult for media to be reporting against people who give them advertisements.
(d)     The media also tends to focus on a particular aspect of a story because they believe this makes the story interesting and to increase public support for an issue, they often do this by focusing on one side of a story.

*    Setting Agendas
1.    The media also plays an important role in deciding what stories to focus on, and therefore, decides on what is newsworthy.

2.    By focusing on particular issues, the media influences our thoughts, feelings and actions, and brings those issues to our attention.

3.    Due to the significant influence it plays in our lives and in shaping our thoughts, it is commonly said that the media ‘sets the agenda’.
      For example 
     Very recently, the media drew our attention to alarming levels of pesticides in cola drinks. They published reports that indicated the high level of pesticides and, thus, made us aware of the need to regularly monitor these colas according to international          quality and safety standards. 

4.    There are several instances when the media fails to focus on issues that are significant in our lives. For example, drinking water is a major problem in the country. Every year, thousands of people suffer and die because they do not get safe drinking                 water. However, we seldom find the media discussing this issue.

5.    As citizens of a democracy, the media has a very important role to play in our lives because it is through the media that we hear about issues related.

6.   Local media
     A newspaper called Khabar Lahriya which is a fortnightly that is run by eight Dalit women in Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh. Written in the local language, Bundeii, this eight-page newspaper reports on Dalit issues and cases of violence against                  women and political corruption. The newspaper reaches farmers, shopkeepers, panchayat members, school teachers and women who have recently learnt to read and write to the working of the government. The media decides what to focus on and in            this way it ‘sets the agenda’.

 

 

Women Empowerment
    The work opportunities available for men and women are not equal. Because of the demands of the family and society, a woman has to make many sacrifices. Moreover, many job opportunities are considered to be more relevant for men than women.

Fewer opportunities and rigid expectations
If we are asked to have an image of a nurse, a scientist and a teacher in our mind; the result is a female for nurse and teacher; and a male as a scientist. This is because this is what we commonly see. Moreover, every job requires certain characteristics in a person. A nurse is supposed to be very patient and soft; hence we always expect a nurse to be a female. On the other hand a scientist is supposed to be extraordinarily intelligent; a trait often associated with males in the society. Presuming some roles for men and some for women is also because of the roles played by girls and women in the family and society. Since people believe in stereotypes, many girls do not get the same encouragement and support from the family for taking up studies in engineering and medical fields. In fact girls are expected to get married once they finish school.

We live in a society where children are pressurized by the people around them. The pressure could be from Adults of the family. Other children of the same age group.

An example of pressure specific to gender is the disapproval regarding boys crying in front of others. Boys are forced by the elders in the family to take up full time mainstream jobs thus discouraging them from pursuing their passion in the field of art, music, etc.

Learning for Change
Going to school is an important part of our lives. When we see more and more children joining school, it seems to be very natural to go to school. But in the earlier days, the skill of reading and writing were known only to a few. There were also lots of superstitions attached to educating women. For example two centuries ago it was believed that educated women would bring ill luck to their husbands and hence they would become widows!

Children used to learn the skills and activities in which their family was engaged. There was extreme gender bias in the earlier days. In communities, where the male child was taught to read and write, girls were not allowed to learn the alphabet. Even in families where skills like pottery, weaving, craft, etc. were taught, the contribution of the females was only supportive and not main. For example regarding pottery, women collected mud and prepared the earth for pots. But they did not operate the wheel. Hence they were not seen as potters.

Many new ideas about education and learning emerged in the nineteenth century. Schools became more common. Many communities that were earlier not sending their children to school started sending them to school for formal education. There was lot of resistance regarding educating women. With a lot of effort of many women and men, schools were opened for girls. Females struggled to read and write.

Breaking Stereotypes
    Lakshmi Lakra: 27 – year old Lakshmi Lakra from a poor family in a tribal village in Jharkhand is the first woman engine driver for Northern Railways.
    Ramabai (1858-922): She championed the cause of women’s education. She was given the title ‘Pandita’. This was because she could read and write Sanskrit. She never went to school. She learnt to read and write from her parents. She set up a Mission      (which is still active today) near Pune in 1898 where poor women and widows were encouraged to become literate and independent.
   Rashsundari Devi (1800-1890): Her autobiography in Bangla titled Amar Jiban is the first known autobiography written by an Indian woman. She used to secretly take out pages from the books of her son and husband. She learnt by matching the                   letters/words with the ones she remembered/heard during the course of her days. Through her own writing, she could express and let the world know about women’s lives in those days.
  Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain: She knew how to read and write Urdu but was not allowed to learn Bangla and English. She learnt these with the help of her brother and sister. She became a writer and wrote a remarkable story titled Sultana’s Dream in 1905.    In 1910, she also started a school for girls in Kolkata, which is still functioning today.

Schooling and education -The present scenario: Many boys and girls attend school today. But there still remains a difference in the education levels of boys and girls. The drop-out rate of girls is very high especially in rural areas. This is due to the circumstances and the attitude of the family and society wherein girls are expected to take care of the house and their siblings and elders. It is also due to inadequate facilities at school like availability of toilets.

Census    Literate boys and men (%)        Literate girls and women (%)
    1960                40                                                    15
    2001                76                                                    54

The above table shows that though the number of literate men and women has increased significantly over the years, the gap between the education levels of men and women has not gone away. Providing equal schooling facilities to children from all communities and classes, and particularly girls still continues to be a challenge in our country.

From the data of the Education Survey, GOI 2003-2004 we can conclude that
Girls from SC and ST category leave school at a higher rate than the other girls.
The rate at which girls leave school is higher than that of boys.
The rate of leaving school at the Secondary level i.e. classes 9-10 group; is the highest.

The 2001 census also found that the rate at which Muslim girls leave school is higher than that of Dalit (officially called Scheduled Caste or SC) and Adivasi (officially called Scheduled Tribe or ST) girls.

While a non-Muslim girl stays in school for around four years, a Muslim girl leaves school as early as after three years.

 Reasons for dropping out of school – Dalit, Adivasi and Muslim communities

 Lack of proper schools and teachers: In many parts of our country especially rural and poor areas proper schools and regular teachers are not available.
 Inaccessible: If the school is not close to people’s homes, and buses or vans are not available for transport, people will not be willing to send their girls to school.
 Unaffordable: Many people are poor and unable to afford the cost of education. In such cases boys are given preference and girls are retained at home.
 Discrimination: Discrimination and resultant harassment by teachers and classmates is also a reason for dropping out. An example is the Dalit writer, Omprakash Valmiki’s experience (as mentioned in chapter 1).

Women’s Movement

Now women and girls have a right to go to school. There is a change in the scenario that existed many years ago. This change has not happened overnight. It is a result of the continuous struggle and efforts by women individually and collectively. This struggle is called the Women’s Movement. Many women’s organizations from different parts of the country as well as individual women are a part of this movement. The movement has the support of many men also. Even in other spheres like legal reforms, violence and health; the condition of women has improved. Various strategies and methods are used for

Spreading awareness
Fighting discrimination
Seeking justice

Some of the strategies are as follows:
Campaigning

Campaigns to oppose discrimination and seek justice are an integral part of the women’s movement. The impact of the campaigns is as under:

Passing of new laws: New laws have been passes as a result of the campaigns. In 2006, a law regarding domestic violence was passed. This law gave legal protection to women who faced physical and mental torture at home.

Guidelines against sexual harassment: In 1997, the Supreme Court passed guidelines to protect women from sexual harassment at workplace and within educational institutions.

Amendment in dowry laws: In the 1980s, there was a nationwide campaign against dowry deaths. Women groups spoke against the failure to take action against the people responsible for dowry deaths. They took to streets, approached courts, etc. This issue hence gained importance and became an important matter in the newspapers and in the society, hence leading to changes in the dowry laws.

Raising awareness
    The first step in addressing any issue is to raise public awareness about it. The women’s movement did the same and spread the message through street plays, songs and public meetings.

Protesting
    When any violation against women takes place, the women’s movement raises its voice against it. Some popular and effective ways of drawing public attention to injustices are public rallies and demonstrations.

Showing Solidarity
    Showing solidarity with other women and causes is also a part of the women’s movement.

    Women hold up candles to show solidarity between the people of our country and Pakistan.
    Every year, on August 14, many people gather at Wagah border and hold a cultural programme.
    Candle light vigils; to protest against brutal cruelty shown to women are also very common.

Keywords
    Domestic Violence: It is the physical and mental violence that women face within their homes.
    Stereotype: When we believe that people belonging to a particular religion, community, gender etc. have certain traits and can do only a certain type of work, we are creating a stereotype.
    Dowry Deaths: These are the cases of murder of young brides by their husbands and in-laws due to greed for more dowry.
    Discrimination: In simple words, it means partiality or bias. When people are not treated equally and with respect, it is called discrimination.
    Literate: A person is called literate when he/she can at least write his/her name.
    Sexual Harassment: This refers to behavior (either physical or verbal) that is of sexual nature and against the wishes and dignity of a woman.

 

*   INTRODUCTION
    Gender--meaning  
    By gender, we mean the many social values and stereotypes our cultures attach to the biological distinction ‘male’ and ‘female’. it is a term that helps us to understand many of the inequalities and power relations between men and women in society.
    Two case studies:

*   Growing up in Samoa in the 1920s

 

(i)    The Samoan Islands are part of a large group of small islands in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. 
(ii)    In the 1920s, according to research reports on Samoan society, children did not go to school. 
(iii)    Fishing was a very important activity on the islands. Young people, therefore, learnt to take undertake long fishing expeditions.
(iv)    As soon as babies could walk, their mothers or other adults no longer looked after them. Older children, often as young as five years old, took over this responsibility.
(v)    Both boys and girls looked after their younger siblings.
(vi)    But, by the time a boy was about nine years old, he joined the older boys in learning outdoor jobs like fishing and planting coconuts. Girls had to continue looking after small children or do errands for adults till they were teenagers.
(vii)    But, once they became teenagers they had much more freedom. After the age of fourteen or so, girls also went on fishing trips, worked in the plantations, learnt how to weave baskets. 
(viii)    Cooking was done in special cooking-houses, where boys were supposed to do most of the work while girls helped with the preparations.

*   Growing up male in Madhya Pradesh in the 1960s
(i)     From Class VI onwards, boys and girls went to separate schools.
(ii)     The girls’ school was designed very differently from the boys’ school. They had a central courtyard where they played in total clusion and safety from the outside world.
(iii)     The boys’ school had no such courtyard and our playground was just a big space attached to the school.
(iv)     Every evening, when school was over, the boys watched as hundreds of school girls crowded the narrow streets. As these girls walked on the streets, they looked so purposeful.
(v)     This was unlike the boys who used the streets as a place to stand around idling, to play, to try out tricks with their bicycles.
(vi)     For the girls the street was simply a place to get straight home. The girls always walk in groups, perhaps because they also carried fears of being teased or attacked.

*    HOW DO SOCIETIES MAKE CLEAR DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN BOYS AND GIRLS                 
(a)    Boys are usually given cars to play with the girls dolls. Toys become a way of telling children that they will have different futures when they become men and women.
(b)    How girls must dress, what games boys should play, how girls need to talk softly of boys need to be tough. All these are ways of telling children that they have specific roles in play when they grow up to be mens and women.
(c)    In most societies, including our own, the roles men and women play the work they do, are not valued equally. Men and women do not have the same status.

Illustration 1
    What do you mean by Identity
Solution 
    Identity is a sense of self awareness of who one is.Typically a person can have several identites.
    For Ex: A person can be a girl, a sister and a musician. 

Illustration 2
    What is care-giving?
Solution 
    Care giving refers to a range of tasks related to looking  after an nurturing. Besides physical tasks,they also involve a strong emotional aspect.

*    VALUING  HOUSEWORK
     Across the world, the main responsibility for housework and care living tasks, like looking after the  family, expecially children, the elderly and sick members, lies with women. Yet as we have seen, the work that women do within the home is not                         recognised as work. It is also assumed that this is something that comes naturally to women and society evalues this work. 

 

*    Lives of Domestic workers 
(i)   Many homes, particularly in towns and cities, employ domestic workers.
    (a) They do a lot of work- sweeping and cleaning, washing clothes and dishes, cooking, looking after young children or the elderly. 
    (b) Most domestic workers are women. 
    (c) Sometimes, even young boys or girls are empolyed to do this work.
    (d) Wages are low, as domestic work does not have much value.
    (e) A domestic worker’s day can begin at twelve at night.
    (f) Despite the hard work they do, their employers often do not show them much respect.

(ii)    In fact, what we commonly termed as housework actually involves many different tasks. A number of these tasks require heavy physical work. 
    (a) In both rural and urban areas women and girls have to fetch water.
    (b) In rural areas women and girls carry heavy headloads of firewood.
    (c) Tasks like washing clothes, cleaning, sweeping and picking up loads require bending, lifting and carrying. 
    (d) Many chores, like cooking, involve standing for long hours in front of hot stoves.
    (e) The work women do is strenuous and physically demanding - works that we normally associated with men.
    (f) Another aspect of housework and care-giving that we do not recognise is that it is very time consuming. 

(iii)     Below is some data from a special study done by the Central Statistical Organization of India (1998-1999). See if you can fill in the blanks.

        

 

*   Women’s Work And Equality
 (i)    The Constitution says that being male or female shoule not become a reason for discrimination. In reality, inequality between the sex exists. The government is, therefore, committed to understanding the reasons for this and taking positive steps to                  remedy the situation. 
(ii)    The government has set up a or child-care centres in several villages in the country.
(iii)    The goverment has passed laws that make in mandatory for organisations that have more than 30 women employees to provide creche facilities.The provision of creches helps many women makes it possible for more girls to attend schools.

Illustration 1  
    The concept of ‘Double Burden’?
Soution 
    Literally means a double load.This term is commonly used to describe the women”s work situation.It has emerged from a recognition that women typically labour both inside the home and outside.

Illustration 2
    How can you explain the term devalued work?
Solution
    When someone is not given due recognition for a task or job they have done,they can feel de-valued 
    For Ex: The work that women is less valued than that of men.

 

*   Introduction
    In common usage the word ‘government’ refers to government departments and various ministers who head them. The government at the State level functions almost similarly as that a the government at the Centre. Just we have the President, Prime                 Minister and Council of Ministers forming the executive at the Centre, at the State level we have the Governor, Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers. 

*   The State Legislatures
1.    Like the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha at the Centre, the states have Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). 
2.    Most states of India have only the lower house or vidhan Sabha. When a state has only one house, it is called a UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE. 
3.    Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and Karnataka have both the houses. States with both houses are called BICAMERAL LEGISLATURES. 

 

Vidhan Parishad or Legislative Council
    Members of the Vidhan Parishad are elected from various bodies :
1.    Electorates formed out of local self-governing bodies elect 1/3rd of the members.
2.    Members of the Vidhan Sabha elect 1/3rd of the members.
3.    A constituency of graduates elects 1/12th.
4.    Teachers of secondary schools, colleges and universities elect 1/12th.
5.    1/6th are nominated by the State Governor from eminent people in the field of music, art, science, social services, etc.

Vidhan Sabha or Legislative Assembly
1.    Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) are elected by the people.
2.    The Vidhan Sabha cannot have more than 500 members. 
3.    Members are elected for a term of five years unless the government is dismissed before the full term is complete.
4.    This members are called MLAs.
5.    The Vidhan Sabha elects a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker who performs the same functions as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

Relation Between Vidhan Parishad And Vidhan Sabha
1.    Money bills can be introduced only in the Vidhan Sabha. 
2.    The Vidhan Parishad has to reject or pass the money bill within 14 days, otherwise the bill is considered passed.
3.    The Vidhan Parishad has little power over ordinary bills too. If the Vidhan Parishad rejects a bill or makes changes, or withholds it for three months, the Vidhan Sabha can pass it again. This time the bill is considered passed if the Vidhan Parishad does          not return the bill within one month.
    Thus, we can see that the Vidhan Sabha has more powers than the Vidhan Parishad.

The Governor
1.    The Governor is the nominal head of the State Government. 
2.    He/She acts as a link between the Centre and the State.
3.    The President in consultation with the Prime Minister appoints the Governor.

Qualifications
1.    To be appointed as a Governor, the candidate must be a citizen of India. 
2.    Minimum age at least Thirty five years. 

    Term
1.    The Governor is appointed for a five year period.
2.    But the President can recall the Governor before the term is over or extend it by another five years term.

Functions
    The Governor appoints the Council of Ministers and all the top-level state officials,
     Advocate-General, Chairman and / Members of the State Public Service Commission, etc.

Legislative Powers
1.    The Governor summons and prorogues the sessions of the State Legislature and addresses the first sesion of the Legislative Assembly. 
2.    No bill can become a law without the Governor’s assent. 
3.    The Governor can issue orders known as ORDINANCES. 
4.    These Ordinances remain in force till six weeks of the next session of the State Legislature unless disallowed by the Legislature. 
5.    The general budget is presented in the State Legislative Assembly in the Governor’s name.

Executive Powers
1.    The Governor is the constitutional head of the state. 
2.     He appoints the leader of the majority party in the State Vidhan Sabha as the Chief Minister of the State.

Judicial Powers
1.    The Governor has the power to pardon or reduce a sentence. 
2.     If the Governor feels that the State is not functioning along the constitutional lines, he/she can inform the President.

*    The Chief Minister
1.    The real power lies with the Chief Minister who is the leader of the majority party or a combination of political parties in the Legislative Assembly.
2.    The Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister appoints other ministers.
3.    The Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Stage Legislative Assembly. 
4.    They work as a team and stay in power as long as they enjoy the confidence of the State Legislative Assembly.
5.    The Chief Minister presides over Cabinet meetings and has the power to appoint and, dismiss or the members from the Council of Ministers. 
6.    The Chief Minister acts as the link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers and coordinates the work of different ministries.
7.    The Chief minister and other ministers have the responsibility of running various government departments or ministries. 

The Speaker
    The Vidhan Sabha elects a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker who performs the same functions as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

Functions of the Speaker
1.    The Speaker presides over the meetings of the Vidhan Sabha.
2.    No bills or resolutions can be passed without his permission.
3.    Speaker decides whether a bill is a money bill or not.
4.   The Speaker maintains discipline in the House.
      The Vidhan Sabha makes laws on the subjects in the State list. The procedure for passing a law is similar to that at the Centre. However, if a Governor feels that a particular law will not benefit the nation, he can withhold his assent and send it to the                President.

Illustration 1.
    What do you mean by the word majority?
Solution    
    This is a situation when more than half the number in a group supports a decision or an idea. This is also called a simple majority.

Illustration 2.
    What do you mean by the word opposition?
Solution    
    This refers to elected representatives who are not members of the ruling party and who play the role of questioning government decisions and actions as well as raise new issues for consideration in the Assembly.

Illustration 3.
    What is Constituency?
Solution
    A particular area from which all the voters living and choose their representatives. This could be, for example, a panchayat word or an area that chooses an MLA.
 

 

 

 

*   Working of The Government
1.    The Legislative Assembly is not the only place where opinions are expressed about the work of the government and action is demanded. 
2.    Newpapers, TV channels and other organisations regularly talk about the government. In a democracy, there are various ways through which people express their views and also take action.
3.    The  people in power like the chief minister and the minister have to take action. 
4.    They do so through various departments like the Public Works Department, the Agriculture Department, the Health Department, the Education Department and so on. 
5.    They also have to answer questions that are asked in the Legislative Assembly and convince people asking the questions that proper steps are being taken. 
6.    At the same time, newspapers and the media widely discuss the issue and the government has to respond, for example, by holding the press conferences.

Role of the Government in Health
1.    Health means our ability to remain free of illness and injuries. 
2.    India has a large number of doctors, clinics and hospitals. 
3.    This is a system of hospitals and health centres run by the government. 
4.    It has the ability to look after the health of a large section of its population scattered over hundreds. 

We can roughly divide up various healthcare facilities in two categories:
    (a) Public health services and                 
    (b) Private health facilities.

Public health services
1.    The Public health service is a chain of health centres and hospitals run by the government. They are linked together so that they cover both rural and urban areas.
(i)    At the village level there are health centres where there is usually a nurse and a village health worker. They are trained in dealing with common illnesses and work under the supervision of doctors at the Primary Health Centre (PHC). Such a centre                 covers many villages in a rural area. 
(ii)    At the district level is the District Hospital that also supervises all the health centres.
(iii)    Large cities have many government hospitals.

Function of Public Health Care
    The health service is called ‘public’ for many reasons. 
1.    In order to fulfil its commitment of providing healthcare to all citizens. One of the most important aspects of the public health system is that it is meant to provide quality healthcare services either free or at a low cost, so that even the poor can seek                   treatment. 

2.    Another important function of public health is to take action to prevent the spread of diseases such as TB, malaria, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea, chikungunya.
3.    According to our Constitution, it is the primary duty of the government to ensure the welfare of the people and provide health care facalities to all.The government must safeguard the Right to Life of every person. 

Private health facilities
1.    There is a wide range of private health facilities that exist in our country. 
2.    A large number of doctors run their own private clinics. 
3.    In the rural areas. one finds Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs). 
4.    Urban areas have large number of doctors. 
5.    Hospitals and nursing homes that are privately owned many laboratories shops from where we buy medicines.
6.    Private health facalities are not owned or controlled by the government. 

Healthcare and equality: Is adequate healthcare available to all?
    In order to earn more money, these private services encourage practices that are incorrect. At times cheaper methods, though available, are not used. Doctors prescribing unnecessary medicines, injections or saline bottles when tablets or simple                    medicines can suffice.
    Women’s health concerns are considered to be less important than the health of men in the family. Many tribal areas have few health centres and they do not run properly. 

What can be done?
    It is the responsibility of the government to provide quality healthcare services to all its citizens, especially the poor and the disadvantaged.

The Kerala experience
       In 1996, the Kerala government made some major changes in the state. Forty percent of the entire state budget was given to panchayats. They could plan and provide for their requirements.
(i)    This made it possible for a village to make sure that proper planning was done for water, food, women’s development and education.
(ii)    This meant that water supply schemes were checked, the working of schools and anganwadis was ensured and specific problems of the village were taken up.
(iii)    Health centres were also improved. All of this helped to improve the situation.

The Costa Rican approach
Costa Rica is considered to be one of the healthiest countries in South America. Decided not to have an army. This helped the Costa Rican government to spend the money that the army would have used, on health, education and other basic needs of the people.The Costa Rican government provides basic services and amenities to all Costa Ricans. for example, it provides safe drinking water, sanitation, nutrition and housing. Health education is also considered very important and knowledge about health is an essential part education at all levels.

Glossary:
Public : An activity or service that is meant for all people in the country and is mainly organised by the government. This includes schools, hospitals, telephone services, etc. People can demand these services and also raise questions about their non-functioning.

Private : An activity or service that is organised by an individual or company for their own profit.

OPD : This is the short form for ‘Out Patient Department’. This is where people are first brought in and treated in a hospital without being admitted to any special ward.

Majority : This is a situation when more than half the number in a group supports a decision or an idea. This is also called a simple majority.

Opposition : This refers to elected representatives who are not members of the ruling party and who play the role of questioning government decisions and actions as well as raise new issues for consideration in the Assembly.

Illustration 1    
    What do you understand by the term Medical tourists?
Solution
    This refers to foreigners who come to this country specifically for medical treatment at hospitals that offer world-class facilities at a lower cost than what they would have to pay in their own countries.    
Illustration 2
    What is an OPD
Solution
    This is the short form for ‘Out Patient Department’. This is where people are first brought in and treated in a hospital without being admitted to any special ward.

Illustration 3
    What do you mean by public services/Activity
Solution
    Public: An activity or service that is meant for all people in the country and is mainly organised by the government. This includes schools, hospitals, telephone services, etc. People can demand 

Illustration 4
    What is the press Conference?
Solution
    A gathering of journalists from the media who are invited to hear about ask questions on a particular issue and are then expected to report on this to the large public.