UNIT 2

Stress

Nature of Stress

• All the challenges, problemsand difficult circumstances put us to stress.
• If stress is handled properly, stress increases the probability of one’s survival.
• Stress gives energy, increases human arousal and affects performance.

However, high stress can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate.

Conversely, too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less sufficiently.

• ‘Eustress’ is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing minor crisis.
• ‘Distress’ is the kind of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear.
• Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.
• Stress comes from the Latin word ‘strictus’ (noun) and ‘stringere’ (verb) meaning tight or narrow.
• Stressors are events that cause our body to give the stress response.
  ex- noise, crowding, bad relationships, etc.
• The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’.

• Stress is associated with both the causes as well as effects.

1. Hans Selye (the father of modern stress research) defined stress as “the non- specific response of the body to any demand” i.e., regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions.
2. Some researchers feel that different stressors may produce somewhat different patterns of stress reaction, and different individuals may have different characteristic modes of response.

• Stress is not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment, instead it is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their social and cultural environment, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the issues that arise.

Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostatic or an imbalance that gives rise to a requirement for resolution of that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis.

• The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them.
• An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived events and how they are interpreted or appraised.
• Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisals:

  

This two-level appraisal process determines not only our cognitive and behavioral responses but also our emotional and physiological responses to external events.

• These appraisals are very subjective and depend on the following factors:

1. Past experiences of dealing with such a stressful condition.

If one has handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening for him/her.

Controllability

• Whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable i.e., whether one has mastery or control over a situation.
• A person who believes that she/he can control the onset of a negative situation, or its adverse consequences, will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such sense of personal control.
• A sense of self-confidence or efficacy can determine whether the person is likely to appraise the situation as a threat or a challenge.

Thus, the experience and outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to individual.

• Stress includes all those environmental and personal events which challenge or threaten the wellbeing of a person.

These stressors can be:

• These stressors result in a variety of stress reactions which may be physiological, behavioral, emotional and cognitive.

1. At the physiological level, around plays a key role in stress-related behaviors.

The hypothalamus initiates action along 2 pathogens:

1. The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large amount of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream. This leads to physiological change seen in fight- or flight response.
2. The second pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol) which provides energy.

2. The emotional reactions to experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial.
3. The behavioral responses are virtually limitless depending on the nature of the stressful event.

1. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight), or
2. Withdrawal from the threating event (flight)

4. Cognitive responses include belief about the harm or threat an event poises and beliefs about its causes or controllability. These include responses such as inability to concentrate, and intrusive, repetitive on morbid thoughts.

• The stresses which people experience also vary in terms of:

1. Intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity)
2. Duration (short term vs. long term)
3. Complexity (less complex vs. more complex)
4. Predictability (unexpected vs. predictable)

The outcome of stress depends on the position of a particular stressful experience along these dimensions.

Usually more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses have more negative consequences than have less intense, short-term, loss complex and expected stresses.

• An individual’s experiences of stress depend on:

1. The physiological strength of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physical health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable than would be those who enjoy good health and strong constitution.
2. Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament, and self-concept are relevant to the experience of stress.
3. The cultural context in which we live determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature of response that is expected under various conditions.

 Signs and Symptoms of Stress

• The way we respond to stress varies depending upon our personality, early upbringing  and life experiences.
• The warning signs may vary, as may their intensity as everyone has their own patterns of stress response.
• The depth of the problem may be assessed by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behavior.
• These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional or behavioral.

Following are the signs of stress:

1. Lack of concentration
2. Memory loss
3. Poor decision-making
4. Inconsistency
5. Irregular attendance and timekeeping
6. Low self-esteem
7. Poor long-term planning
8. Frantic bursts of energy
9. Extreme mood swings
10. Emotional outbursts
11. Worry
12. Anxiety
13. Fear
14. Depression
15. Difficulties with sleep
16. Difficulties with eating
17. Misuse of drugs
18. Physical illness, e.g. stomach upset, headache, backache, etc.

Types of Stress(All the 3 types of stress are interrelated)

Physical and Environmental Stress

• Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body. We feel strained when we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer and injury, or fail to get enough sleep.
• Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc.
• Another groups of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire, floods, earthquake etc.

Psychological Stress

• Stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds.
• Personal and unique to the person experiencing them.
• Internal sources of stress.
• These are not only symptoms of stress, but they cause further stress for us.
• Exists when we worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed.
• Some of the important sources of psychological stress are:

a) Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or someone that hindersus from achieving a desired goal.

Cause of frustration-social discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low grades in school, etc.

b) Conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives. Ex-whether to study dance or psychology.

There may be a conflict of values when one is pressurized to take any action that may be against the values held by the person.

c) Internal pressures stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to ourselves such as- ‘I must do everything perfectly’.

Such expectations can only lead to disappointment. Many of us drive ourselves ruthlesslytowards achieving unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals.

d) Social pressures may be brought about from people who make excessive demands on us.

This can cause even greater pressure when we have to work with them.

‘A personality clash’ can cause even further interpersonal difficulties.

Social Stress

• Induced externally
• Results from our interaction with other people.
• Vary widely from person to person.
• Ex- social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbors           .

Sources of Stress

Life events

• Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born.
• We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful, because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval.
• If several of these life vents that are planned or unpredicted occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prove to the symptoms of stress.

Hassles

• Personal stresses we endure as individuals due to the happenings in our daily life:

1. Noisy surroundings
2. Electricity and water shortage
3. Traffic snarls
4. Quarrelsome neighbors

• Daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual who is often the one coping alone of them as outsiders.
• The more stress people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is their psychological well-being.

Traumatic events

• Include being involved in a variety of extreme events such a fire, train or road accident, tsunami,robbery, earthquake, etc.
• Effects of these events may occur after some lapse of time and sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughtsetc.
• Severe trauma can also strain relationships.
• Professional help will be needed to cope with them especially if they persist for many months after the event is over.

Effects of Stress

Emotional Effects

• Experience mood swings.
• Show erratic behaviors that may alienate them from family and friends.
• Vicious circle of decreasing confidence leading to more serious emotional problems.
• Feelings of anxiety and depression.
• Increased physical tension.
• Increased psychological tension.

Physiological Effects

• Increase in production of certain hormones (adrenaline and cortisol)
• Changes in the following due to increase in production of adrenaline and cortisol:

1. Heart rate
2. Blood pressure levels
3. Metabolism
4. Physical activity

• Extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects.
• Release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Slowing down of the digestive system
• Expansion of air passages in the lungs
• Increased heart rate
• Constriction of blood vessels

Cognitive Effects

• Mental overload
• Lose the ability to make sound decisions
• Faulty decisions made at home, workplace or in career may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job.
• Poor concentration
• Reduced short-term memory capacity.

Behavioral Effects

• Eating less nutritional food.
• Increasing intake of stimulants (caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc.)
• Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as:

1. Loss of concentration
2. Poor coordination
3. Dizziness

• Disrupted sleep patterns
• Increased absenteeism
• Reduced work performance

Examination Anxiety

• Involves feelings of tension or uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination.
• Exam anxiety may be helpful in some ways as:

1. it can be motivating
2. creates the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one’s performance

• Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student.
• However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some students that they are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they have shown in less stressful classroom situations.
• Examination stress is characterised as “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress”
• Produces debilitating behavioural, cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor.
• High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration, and performance.
• Persons who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening; in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and emotionally aroused.
• Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attention and interfere with concentration during examinations.

1. High test anxious students respond to examination stress with:
2. intense emotional reactions
3. negative thoughts about themselves
4. feelings of inadequacy
5. helplessness
6. loss of status and esteem

• Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plunges inward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily available to her/him, or experiences attentional blocks.
• While preparing for examinations, one must spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one’s strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condense notes, space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day concentrate on staying calm.

Stress and Health

• People with stress are unhappy
• Fall sick more often
• Diverts an individual’s attention from caring for herself/himself (chronic daily stress)
• When stress is prolonged:

1. Affects physical health
2. Impairs psychological functioning

• Due to high stress and little support available from family and friends, people experience:

1. Attitudinal problems
2. Physical Exhaustion (Chronic fatigue, low energy and weakness)
3. Mental Exhaustion (Irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness)

• This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout.
• Stress can produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances of someone becoming ill.
• Risk of developing:

1. Cardiovascular disorders
2. High blood pressure
3. Psychomatic disorders (ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches)

• Stress plays an important role in 50% - 70% of all physical illnesses.
• 60% of medical visits are primarily for stress-related symptoms.

General Adaption Syndrome

• Selye studied what happens to the body when stress is prolonged, by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors (high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections) in the laboratory over a long period of time.
• He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals.
• He noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them, which he called the General Adaptation Syndrome.
• According to him, GAS involves:

Alarm reaction stage

• The presence of a noxious stressor or stimulus leads to activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system.
• This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response.
• Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.

Resistance stage

• If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins.
• The parasympathetic nervous system calls for more cautions use of the body’s resources.
• The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.

Exhaustion stage

• Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion.
• The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely.

• Selye’s model has been criticized for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.Psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress.How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perception, personalities and biological constitutions.

Stress and the Immune System

• Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system which guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside.
• Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system.
• Working of immune system:

1. The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses.
2. Leads to the production of antibodies.
3. Several kinds of WBCs:

• T cells destroy invaders and T helper cells increase immunological activity. It is these T helper cells that are attacked by HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus), the virus causing AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome).
• B cells produce antibodies.
• Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumors.
• Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity which is of major importance in the defense against various infections and cancer, therefore reduced levels of natural cell cytotoxity have been found in people who are highly stressed.
• Immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support.
• Changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

• Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated behaviors, including depression, hostility, anger and aggression.
• Negative emotion states are of particular concern to the study of effects of stress on health.
• The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive behavior increases with the build up of long-term stress.
• Worries can reach such a level that they surface as a frightening, painful physical sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart attack.
• People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias and may experience fits of depression, anger and irritability.
• These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of the immune system.
• Negative moods have been associated with poorer health outcomes.
• Feelings of hopelessness leads to/ causes worsening of disease, increased risk of injury and death due to various causes.

Lifestyle

• Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or health damaging behaviors.
• Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviors that determine a person’s health and quality of life.
• Stressed individuals may be likely to expose themselves to pathogens i.e., agents causing physical illness.
• People who are stressed:

1. have poor nutritional habits
2. sleep less
3. are likely to engage in other health risking behaviors like smoking and alcohol abuse, which develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences temporarily.

• However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging affects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives.
• The modern lifestyle of excesses on eating, drinking and the so called fast-paced good life has led to the violation of basic principles of health as to what we eat, think or do with our lives.

Coping with Stress

• It is how we cope with stress and not the stress one experiences that influences our psychological well-being, social functioning and health.
• Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress.
• The way we cope with stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based on experience.
• People who cope poorly with stress have an impaired immune response and diminished activity of natural killer cells.
• Endler and Parker gave the following coping strategies:

  

• Lazarus and Folkman have conceptualized coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual trait.

Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction.

Coping serves to allow the individual to manage on alter a problem and regulate the emotional response to that problem.

According to them, coping responses can be divided into two types of responses:

Stress management techniques

Relaxation Techniques

• An active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease.
• Usually relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed.
• Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relate the body.

Meditation Procedures

• The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of learned techniques for refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
• Involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness.

Biofeedback

• A procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by relaxation training.
• Biofeedback training involves 3 stages:

1. Developing an awareness of the particular physiological response.
2. Learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions.
3. Transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life.

Creative Visualization

• An effective technique for dealing with stress
• A subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination.
• Before visualizing one must set oneself a realistic goal; helps build confidence.
• Easier to visualize if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed, and eyes are closed.
• Reduces the risk of interference from unhidden thoughts.
• Provides the creative energy for turning an imagined scene into reality.

Cognitive Behavioral Techniques

• Aim to inoculate people against stress.
• Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum.
• The essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones.
• There are 3 main phases in this:

1. Assessment involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the person/client.
2. Stress reduction involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as relaxation and self-instruction.
3. Application and follow-through involves applying or following the stress reduction techniques.

Exercise

• Can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in response to stress.
• Improves the efficiency of the heart.
• Enhances the function of the lungs
• Maintains good circulation
• Lowers blood pressure
• Reduces fat in the blood
• Improves the body’s immune system
• Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping etc. help to reduce stress.
• Must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30 mins at a time.
• Each session must have a warm-up, exercise and cool down phases.

Promoting Positive Health and Well-being

Stress Resistant Personality

• Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share 3 characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of ‘hardiness’
• Hardiness is a set of belief about oneself, the world and how they interact.
• It consists of ‘3 C’s’:

1. Commitment - A sense of personal commitment to what you are doing. For instance, commitment to work, family, hobbies, social life.
2. Control - A sense of control over your life.
3. Challenge - A feeling of challenge i.e., they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat.

Life Skills

• Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life.
• Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in our lives.
• Can be learned as well as improved upon.
• Some of the like skills are:

a) Assertiveness

• A behavior or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts.
• Ability:
• to say ‘no’ to a request.
• to state an opinion without being self-conscious.
• to express emotions (love, anger, etc.) openly.
• An assertive person:
• feels confident
• has high self-esteem
• has a solid sense of own identity

b)Time Management

• The way we spend our time determines the quality of our life.
• Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the pressure.
• Major way to reduce time stress is to change one’s perception of time.
• Central principle of time management is to spend your time doing the things that you value or that help you to achieve your goals.
• It depends on being realistic about what you know and that you must do it within a certain time period, knowing what you want to do, and organizing your life to achieve a balance between the two.

c) Rational Thinking

• Many stress-related problems occur as a result of distorted thinking.
• The way we think and the way we feel are closely connected.
• When we are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective bias to attend to negative thoughts and images from the past, which affects our perception of the present and the future.
• Principles of rational thinking are:
• Challenging your distorted thinking and irrational beliefs.
• Driving out potentially intrusive negative anxiety-provoking thoughts.
• Making positive statements.

d) Improving Relationships

• Key to a sound lasting relationship is communication.
• This consists of 3 essential skills:
• Listening to what the other person is saying.
• Expressing how you feel and what you think.
• Accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different from your own.
• Also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy and sulking behavior.

e) Self-care

• If we keep ourselves healthy, fit and relaxed, we are better prepared physically and emotionally to tackle the stresses of everyday life.
• Our breathing patterns reflects our state of mind and emotions.
• When we are stressed or anxious, we tend towards rapid and shallow breathing from high in the chest, with frequent sighs.
• When we are relaxed, breathing is slow, stomach-centered breathing from the diaphragm i.e. a dome like muscle between the chest and the abdominal cavity.
• Environmental stresses can all exert an influence on our mood.
• These have a noticeable effect on our ability to cope with stress and well-being.

f) Overcoming Unhelpful Habits

Such as perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in the short-term but make one more vulnerable to stress.

• Perfectionists are persons who have to get everything just right.
• They have difficult in varying standards according to factors such as time available, consequences of not being able to stop work, and the effort needed.
• More likely to feel tense
• Find it difficult to relax
• Critical of self and others
• May become inclined to avoid challenges
• Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept or face it.
• Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do.
• People who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of failure or rejection.

Positive Health

Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Positive health comprises the following:

• A healthy body
• High quality of personal relationships
• A sense of purpose in life
• Self-regard
• Mastery of life’s tasks
• Resilience to stress, trauma and change

Following act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health:

a) Diet

• A balanced diet can:
• Lift one’s mood
• Give more energy
• Feed muscles
• Improve circulation
• Prevent illness
• Strengthen the immune system
• Make one feel better to cope with stresses of life
• The key to healthy living is to eat three main meals a day and eat a varied well-balanced diet.
• One’s activity level, genetic makeup, climate and health history determines the amount of nutrition one needs.
• What people eat, and how much do they weigh involve behavioral processes.
• Some people are able to maintain a healthy diet and weight while others become obese.
• When we are stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ (high in fats, salts and sugars).

b) Exercise

• Positive relationship between physical fitness and health.
• Lifestyle change with the widest popular approval.
• Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and stress
• Has a positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression.
• Physical exercise that are essential for good health are stretching exercises such as yogic asanas and aerobic exercises such as jogging, cycling, swimming etc.
• Stretching exercises have a calming effect.
• Aerobic exercises increase the arousal level of the body.
• Health benefits of exercise work as a stress buffer.
• Fitness permits individuals to maintain general mental and physical well-being even in the face of the negative life events.

c) Positive Attitude

• Positive health and well-being can be realized by having a positive attitude.
• Factors leading to a positive attitude are:
• Having a fairly accurate perception of reality.
• A sense of purpose in life and responsibility.
• Acceptance and tolerance for different viewpoint of others
• Taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure.
• Being open to new ideas
• Having a sense of humor with the ability to laugh at oneself.
• These factors help us to remain centered, and see things in a proper perspective.

d) Positive Thinking

• Helps significantly in reducing and coping with stress.
• Optimism i.e. the inclination to expect favorable life outcomes, has been linked to psychological and physical well-being.
• Optimists tend to:
• assume that adversity can be handled successfully.
• use more problem-focused coping strategies whereas,
• Pessimists tend to:
• anticipate disasters
• ignore the problem or the source of stress
• use strategies such as giving up the goal with which stress is interfering or denying that stress exists.

e) Social Support

• The existence and availability of people on whom we can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about, value, and love us.
• Someone who believes that she/he belongs to a social network of communication and mutual obligation experiences social support.
• Perceived support i.e., the quality of social support, is positively related to health and wellbeing.
• Social network i.e., the quantity of social support, is unrelated to well-being, as it is very time-consuming and demanding to maintain a large social network.
• Social support can help to provide protection against stress.
• During times of stress, one may experience sadness, anxiety and loss of self-esteem.
• People with high levels of social support from family and friends may experience less stress when they confront a stressful experience, and they may cope with it more successfully.
• Social support may be in the form of:
• Tangible support or assistance involving material aid such as money, goods, services etc.
• Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events.
• Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the individual that she/he is loved, valued and cared for.
• Social support effectively reduces psychological distress such as depression, anxiety during times of stress.
• Social support is positively related to psychological well-being.
• Social support leads to mental health benefits for both the giver and the receiver.