The growth of press in nineteenth century India.

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?

The Nineteenth Century
    Children, Women and Workers
    ·    Children
        (i)    ‘As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth century, children became an important category of readers. Production of school text books became critical for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
        (ii)    Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Anything that was considered unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites, was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In thus way, print recorded old tales but also changed them.
    ·    Women
        (i)    Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behavior and housekeeping.
        (ii)    When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, women were seen as important readers. Some of the best known novelist were women Jane Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot
        (iii)    Their writings became important in defining a new-type of woman; a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.

    ·    Workers
        (i)    Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century onwards in the nineteenth century lending libraries in England became instruments for education while collar workers, artisans and lower middle-class people. Sometimes, self educated working class people wrote for themselves.
        (ii)    After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had some time for self improvements and self expressions. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

    Further Innovations
    1.    By the mid-nineteenth, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical  press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers.
    2.    In the late nineteenth century, the offset press developed which could print up to six colours at a time
    3.    from the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. A series of other developments followed.
    4.    Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of platen became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

    New strategies to sell the product.
    1.    Nineteenth century periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing novels
    2.    In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
    3.    The dust cover of the book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation.
    4.    With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a decline in book purchase. To sustain buying, they out cheap paperback editions.

Illustration 2
    (i)    How printing technology affected the book ?
    (ii)    What kind of cultural transformation took place after printing ?
    (iii)    How publishers persuaded the common people to welcome the printed books ?
Solution
    (i)    (a)     It reduced the cost of books
        (b)     The time and labour required to produce books
        (c)     The multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
        (d)     Book flooded in the markets.
    (ii)    People transformed from oral cultural to reading culture.
    (iii)    Printers began to publish popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures. These were than sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in towns.

    Try yourself
7.    Why all people did not welcome the printed books ?
8.    What did Martin Luther wrote ?
9.    What is protestant reformation ?
10.    Which book written by Martin Luther contains the principles of Protestant reformation.
11.    Why Martin Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one” ?
12.    Who were Chapmen ?
13.    What was ‘Biliotheque Bleue’ ?
14.    Who Said, “the Printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.”
15.    How Print revolution created conditions of French Revolution ?

INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT
    MANUFACTURE BEFORE THE AGE OF PRINT
    Features of Indian Manuscripts
    (i)    India had a very rich and old- tradition of hand written manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian as well as vernacular languages.
    (ii)    Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
    (iii)    They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
        1.    Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
        2.    Students very often did not reads texts. They only learnt to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down. 

    Print Comes to India
    Evolution of English Press in India 
    (i)    The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Karara languages.
    (ii)    Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.
    (iii)    From 1780 James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette a weekly magazine. It was private English enterprises, proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. 
    (iv)    But he also published a lot of gossip about the company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this, Governor-general Warren Hasting persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter that flow of information that damaged the image of the colonial government.
    (v)    The first to appear was the weekly Bengal Gazzette, brought out Effic Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Ram Mohan Roy.
 

Religious Reforms and Public Debates
    (i)    Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while other countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print.
    (ii)    Print tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate.
    (iii)    A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.
    (iv)    Tnis was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmankal priesthood and idolatry.
    (v)    To reach a wider audience, the idea were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.
    (vi)    Ram Mohan Rou published sambad Kaumudi 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy, commissioned the Samchar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
    (vii)    From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published Jam-I-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar.  In same year, a Gujarat newspaper, the Bombay Samachar made its appearance.
    (viii)    In north India, the ulema were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. They feared the colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter miss, they use cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translation of Holy Scriptures, and printed religious Newspapers and tracts.
    (ix)    The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fat was telling Muslims readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. 
    (x)    Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of The Ramcharimanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth century text came out in Calcutta in 1910.
    (xi)    By the mid nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shin Venkateshwar.
    (xii)    Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large of literature men and women.
    (xiii)    Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people, encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions
    (xiv)    Print did not only stimulate the publication of confliction opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India.
    (xv)    Newspaper conveyed news from one place to another, creating panIndian identities.

News From of Publication
    (i)    Besides Novels other new literary forms also entered the world of reading lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives and intimate feelings about the political and social rules that shaped such things.
    (ii)    By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visuals images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
    (iii)    Poor wood engravers who made woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be bought even by the poor.
    (iv)    By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues. 

    Women and Printing
    Conservatives Hindus believed that a literature girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
    (i)    The story of a girl in a conservative Muslims family of north India who secretly to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own.
    (ii)    In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi a young married girl in a very orthodox household learnt to read in the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography. Amarjiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.
    (iii)    From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women- about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labor? and treated unjustly by the very people they served.
    (iv)    In the 1880s in present day Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were so greatly confined by social regulations:
    (v)    Hindi printing  began seriously only from the 1870s, Soon, a large segment of it was developed of it was devoted to the education of women. In the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular.
    (vi)    In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from me early twentieth century Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.
    (vii)    In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta, Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were beng profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enableing women to read them in their leisure time.

Print and the Poor People
    (i)    Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century towns and solds at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them.
    (ii)    Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books,. These libraries were located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
        1.    Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste protest movements; wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1817)
        2.    In the twentieth century B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caset and their writings were read by people all over India.    
        3.    Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1983 to show the links between caste and class explosion.
        4.    The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan Chakra between 1953 and 1955, were brought together and published in a collection called Sacchi Kavityan.
        5.    By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up liberaries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers.

    Print and Censorship
    (i)    By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspaper that would celebrate British rule. In 1853, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers. Governor –General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay a liberal colonial, official formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms,
    (ii)    As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was p[assed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
    (iii)    From now – on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces.
    (iv)    When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
    (v)    Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest this in turn led to a renewed cycle of persucutionand protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in1907, Bangangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment In 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.

Illustration 3
    (i)    Which materials were used for handwritten manuscripts in India ?
    (ii)    What were the problems with manuscripts ?
    (iii)    What is Geet Govinda ?
    (iv) At which place in India printing press came for the first time & who brought it ?
Solution
    (i)   Palm leaves and handmade papers.
    (ii)  They were highly expensive and fragile and should be handled carefully.
    (iii)    It is manuscripts hand written on palm leaf by jayadeva in accordion format.
    (iv)  The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries.

    Try yourself
16.    Which was the first English publication in India?
17.    Why Governor General Warren Hasting presented Hickey?
18.    Which news paper was published by an Indian for the first time and by whom ?
19.    Which matter of reforms were debated by the public through news papers?
20.    What is Fatwa? Who issued them through publication during 1860’ onwards?