Chapter 3: The Making of a Global World‌

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Impact of First world war, Khilafat, NonCooperation and Differing Strands within the Movement.

the first world war, khilafat and non-cooperation
    Growth of Nationalism
    In India, the growth of  modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anticolonial movement.
    People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
    The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
    But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experience were varied.
    The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement, But the unity did not emerge without conflict.
    
    Contribution of 1st World War towards Nationalism
    The war created a new economic and political situation. It led to huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
    Through the war years prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
    Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
    Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
    This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

    The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

    The Rowlatt Act
    Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. 1919.
    This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
    It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
    On 13 April the famous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a crowd of villagers had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
    Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had beed imposed. 
General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. 
    His object, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
    As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings.
    The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people; satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do sallam (salute) to all sahibs.
    People were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Khilafat Movement
    Mahatma Gandhi felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
    The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor- the spiritual head of the Islamic world (Khalifa or Caliph).
    To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
    The brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
    At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced leaders of the congress  about the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

    Why Non-cooperation ?
    In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would be achieved.
    Gandihiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. 
    It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
    Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Illustration 1
    How Non-Cooperation movement was to unfold?
Solution
    Movement was to be unfold in stages beginning with surrender of titles awarded by Government.
Illustration 2
    Who planned the Non-cooperation movement.
Solution
    Muhammad Ali, Shankat Ali and Mahatma Ghandhi
Illustration 3
    How did different social groups conceive the idea of Non Cooperation.
Solution
    Both Hindus and Muslims were suffering from common problems related to British Government moreover Hindus co-opreted in Khilafat movement of Muslims so both these social groups conceive the idea of Non-cooperation.

    Try yourself
1.    How did modern nationalism grow in India?
2.    What was the oppressive plantation system at Champaran?
3.    Why Rowlatt Act was opposed?

Differing Strands within the Movement :
    Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. 
    The Movement in the Towns
    The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
    Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth were burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to 
Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
    But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. 
    (i)    Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
    (ii)    For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back the work in government courts.

    Rebellion in the Countryside : Peasants & Tribal Peasants
    In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords farms without any payment.
    The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai–dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
    Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the village around the region. So when the Non-Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.

    Tribal Peasants
    In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s. Here, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
    When the government began forceing them to contribute begar for road building, the hill people revolted. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that he was an incarnation of God.
    He persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj.

    Swaraj in the Plantations: Plantation worker in Assam
    Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
    When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
    They however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
    The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally relating to an all India agitation.

Illustration 4
    Why is the role of middle class considered essential for the success of revolution?
Solution
    Role of middle class is essential for the success of revolution or movement because
    (a)    They consist of the largest number of population.
    (b)    They have inellectuals in their class.
    (c)    They are close to both upper and the lower classes
    (d)    Their members are present at all the levels of the government as government servants.

Illustration 5
    Why Khadi was introduced?
Solution
    Aim of introducing Khadi was to popularise India cloths as a symbolic of Swadeshi and to support the growth of Indian textile industry.

Illustration 6
    Which rebels attacked police stations and killed British officials through guerrilla warfare for Swaraj?
Solution
    Gudem rebels of Andhra Pradesh

    Try yourself
4.    Why Non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down?
5.    Who was Baba Ramchandra?
6.    What were the demands of peasant movements of Awadh?

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

Nationalism in India

Salt Satyagraha.

The Idea of Satyagraha
    Mahatma Gandhi successfully fought the racist regime with a nobel method of mass agitation, which he called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
    It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
    By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

    Satyagraha movements in various places
    In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the pleasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
    In 1917, Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection to be relaxed.
    In 1918, Ahmedabad too organised a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    (i)    Untouchables: 
        From around the 1930s they had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.
        But many dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They began organising themselves, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.
        Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

    (ii)    Poona Pact:
        When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
        It gave the Depressed Classes, later to be known as the Schedule Castes, reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
        The dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.

    (iii)    Muslim political organisations
        After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
        Each community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.
        The important difference were over the question of representation in the future assemblies that were to be elected.

    (iv)     Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.
        But all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts of compromise.
        When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.

Illustration 7
    What was the main motive of setting up Swaraj Party?
Solution
    The main motive was to participate in elections of provincial council and to oppose British policies from within the council.

Illustration 8
    Why Simon commission was appointed?
Solution
    Simon commission was appointed under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.

Illustration 9
    On what conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates?
Solution
    On following conditions M.A. Jinnah was willing to give up demand for separate electrode
    (i)    If Muslims were assured reserved seats in central Assembly
    (ii)    Reservation in proportion to populations in muslim dominated provinces Bengal and Punjab.

    Try yourself
7.    On what conditions Gandhi ji agreed to participate in Round table  Conference?
8.    What was Poona Pact?

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.    

The Sense of Collective Belonging

How did people belong to different communities, regions or language group develop a sense of collective belonging?
    This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles, History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.

    Identity of the nation
    It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
    The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. 
    Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

    Movement to revive Indian folklore
    In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces.
    In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. 
    In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed that folklore was national literature.

    Symbols
    During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. 
    By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

    Reinterpretation of History
    By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently.
    The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. 
    They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised.
    These nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

    Conclusion
    The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements for independence.
    Through such movements the nationalists tried to forge a national unity.
    The Congress continuously attempted to resolve differences, and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. This is precisely why the unity within the movement often broke down.
    What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.