Chapter 1: Power Sharing

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

INTRODUCTION 
The division of power among various groups and at various levels and parts of the government is necessary for the proper functioning of the democracy. It creates checks and balances in the political system of a country and removes dissatisfaction among various groups of society and parts of the government. However in different parts of the world problems have been created due to unequal representation of different groups in power sharing.

Belgium :
(i)    It is a small country in Europe smaller in area then Haryana in India.
(ii)    Bordering countries are Netherlands France and Germany
(iii)    It has the population of little over one crore about half of the population of Haryana
(iv)    The ethnic composition is complex.

(v)    The minority French Speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
(vi)    This was resented by Dutch speaking coummunity who got the benifit of economic development and education much later.
(vii)    The tension continued during 1950’s and 1960’s and became acute in Bruseels.
(viii)    Dutch speaking people constituted a majority in the country but minority in capital.

Illustration 1 :

(i)    Which language speaking people resided in the areas marked with 1 and 4.
(ii)    Name the place marked with 2.
Solution
(i)    Dutch speaking, French speaking
(ii)    Brussels

Majoritarianism in srilanka :
    Srilanka :
(i)    An island nation a few kilometres away from Indian state of Tamilnadu coast in South Asia region.
(ii)    Population is 2 crore about same as Haryana state of India.
(iii)    It has diverse population.

(iv)    Srilanka became independent in 1948.
(v)    SINHALAS secured dominance over the government by the virtue of their majority.
(vi)    The Government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy.
(vii)    In 1956 by an Act Sinhala was declared the only official language, disregarding Tamils.
(viii)    The government policies were preferential and favoured sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
(ix)    A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
(x)    All these events caused a feeling of alienation and great resentment in Tamils.
(xi)    Causes of resentment were –
    (a)    Tamil felt that non of the political parties led by Buddhist sinhala leader were sensitive to their langugage and culture.
    (b)    Constitution and the government policies denied them equal political rights.
    (c)    Discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interest.
(xii)    Srilankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for
    (a)    Recognition of Tamil as an official language.
    (b)    Regional autonomy
    (c)    Equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
(xiii)    Demands of Tamils for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was repeatedly denied by the majority led government.
(xiv)    By 1980’s several political organization came into existence demanding independent Tamil Eelam (state) in North and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(xv)    This lead to civil war killing thousands of people of both communities.
(xvi)    People were forced to leave Srilanka as refugees and many more lost their livelihood leading to a terrible setback in social, cultural and economic life.

Illustration 2 :
    (i)    How did Srilankan Tamils start their struggle.
    (ii)    Why did Sinhala community seek to secure government dominance over Srilankan Government.
Solution
    (i)    By launching the political parties for 
        (a) Recognising tamil as an official language              (b) Regional autonomy
        (c) Equality of opportunity in education and Jobs.

Try yourself :
5.    What made Srilankan Tamils feel alinated?
6.    Give an account of ethenic composition of Sri Lanka.
7.    Why was the Act of 1956 passed in Srilanka?
Accommodation in belgium :
    The Belgian leaders took a different Path by recognising the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities :
(i)    Amendment of the constitution four times between 1970 and 1993 to enable everyone to live together in the same country.
(ii)   The arrangement they worked out is different from any other country and is very innovative.
        Elements of the Belgian model :
(i)    Number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall equal in central government.
(ii)   Many powers of the central government has been given to the state government of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to central government
(iii)   Brussels has a separate government in which both communities have equal representation.
        The French speaking people accepted equal representation in Brussels because the Dutch speaking community has accepted equal representation in the Central Government.
(iv)   The ‘Community Government’ is elected by the people belonging to one language community–Dutch, French and German speaking no matter wherethey live.
    This Government has power regarding cultural educational and language related issues.
    Nature of Belgian model :
(i)    It is very complicated, even for the people living in Belgium.
(ii)    These arrangements have worked well so far and has halped in avoiding civic strife between two major communities and a possible divison of the country on linguistic basis.
(iii)    After formation of European unions Brussels was chosen as its headquarters.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

Why power sharing is desirable :
(i)    Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social conflict often leads to violence and political instablitiy, power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political order. This is called prudentral power sharing.
(ii)    Imposing the will of majority community over others may look like an attractive option in the short run, but in the long run it undermines the unity of the nation.
(iii)    Tyranny of the majority is not just oppressive for the minority; it often brings ruin to the majority as well.
(iv)    Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. This is called moral power sharing.
(v)    People have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed.
(vi)    A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.
(vii)    Prudential reasons: It stress that power sharing will bring out better outcomes.
(viii)    Moral reason: emphasises the very act of power sharing as valuable.

Illustration 4
    (i)    What happens if powersharing in a country, is not proper?
    (ii)    How imposing will of majority undermines national unity
    (iii)    Why power sharing is called the ‘Spirit of Democracy’?
Solution
(i)    It leads to social conflicts, Voilence and Political instability.
(ii)    In long run minority community starts opposing the present system which leads to social clashes and disputes which hampers national unity.
(iii)    Because power sharing ensures the proper representation of all the social groups and communities providing a better partiapation of the people.

Try yourself :
11.    What can be the best example of prudential reason of power sharing?
12.    Decentralisation of power in India is an examples of which kind of reason of Power Sharing?
13.    “Giving Power of Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase administrative efficiency” Which reason of power sharing has been shown in the above statement.

forms of power sharing :
(i)    One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self-governance. 
(ii)    In a good democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society. Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies.
(iii)    Therefore, it follows that in a democracy political power should be distributed among as many citizens as possible.

    This is called horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
    Even though ministers and government officials exercise power, they are responsible to the Parliament or State Assemblies.
    Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the legislatures.
    This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances.
    Shared among governments at different levels :
    Federal Government ® State Government ® Local Self Government
    A general government for the entire country called federal government and governments at the provincial or regional level. We call them State Governments.
    This is called federal division of power. 
    The same principle can be extended to levels of government lower than the State government, such as the municipality and panchayat called local self government.
    Shared among different social groups
    Such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
    For example : The system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. Meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the governement.
    Power sharing by political parties, pressure groups and movements :
    The citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power. Such competition ensure that power does not remain in one hand.
    Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power.
    In a democracy, we find interest groups such as those of traders, businessmen, industrialists, formers and industrial workers. They also will have a share in government power, either through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on the decision making process.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

INTRODUCTION 
    There are different forms of power sharing like horizontal power sharing, vertical power sharing, social power sharing, coalition, etc. In large countries like India for success of democracy power sharing becomes essential. In vertical power sharing we include the power sharing among union government, state government and local self government this is generally referred to federalism.It is also a convinient method to run the administration of the country successfully. This chapter deals with various aspects of federalism and some important concepts related to it.

what is federlism?    
    Belgium    
    One of the key changes made in the Constitution of Belgium was to reduce the power of the Central Government and to give these powers to the regional governments. 
    Regional governments existed in Belgium even earlier. They had their roles and powers. But all these powers were given to these governments and could be withdrawn by the Central Government.
    The change that took place in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. Thus, Belgium shifted from a unitary to a federal form of government, 
    Sri Lanka
    Continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.     
    Federalism
    Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Usually, a federation has two levels of government :–  
    (1)    The government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest.
    (2)    The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the 
day-to-day administering of their state.
    Both these levels of governments enjoy their power independent of the other.    
    Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Unitary System 
    (Under the unitary system either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.)
    The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government 
    But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.
    State government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. 
    Both these governments are separately answerable to the people of their respective states.

Features of Federalism
    (1)    There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government. 
    (2)    ‘Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
    (3)    The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.
    (4)    The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. (i.e. central and state) 
    (5)    Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
    (6)    Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
    (7)    The federal system thus has dual objectives: 
        (a) To safeguard and promote unity of the country,
        (b) While at the same time accommodate regional diversity. 

    Two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism: 
    (1)    Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
    (2)    They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement.An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and agreement to live together.

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another.

This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed.
    There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.     
    First Route
    The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignity and retaining identity they can increase their security. This type of ‘coming together’ federations include USA, Switzerland and Australia. 
    In this first category of federations, all the constituent States usually have equal power and are strong 
    vis-a-vis the federal government.
    Second Route
    The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. 
    India, Spain and Belgium are examples of this kind of ‘holding together’ federations. 
    In this second category, the central government tends to be more powerful vis-a-vis the States. 
    Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers.Some units are granted special powers.

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

 

What makes india a federal country?
Written Constitution
India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. 
The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.
Division of Powers
The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Union of India and the State governments. 
Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction.
The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments.

Residuary Subjects
The Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists, or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made,  According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects and they are called residuary subjects.
 Holding togather federation
Most federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. 
(i) Some States enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. (Art 375)
(ii) Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here.Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well like Jharkhand etc. 

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power, these are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States.
These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. 
These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.
Coming togather federation
When different states come togather to form a federation enjoying equal powers like center. For example, USA, Australia, Switzerland etc.
This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution.
It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. 
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. 
Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.
Independent Judiciary 
The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. 
In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. 
The Union and State governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.