6. Work, Life & Leisure:

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Development of modern cities due to Industrialization in London & Bombay

The City in Colonial India
The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

When did the Bombay Film industry make its First Appearance?
Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling match in Bombay's hanging gardens and it became India's First movies in 1896. Dadasaheb Phalke made Raja Harishchandra (1913). By 1925, Bombay had become India's films capital Money invested in about 50 Indian films in 1947 was Rs 756 million. By 1987, the film industry employed 520000 people.
Most of the people in the film industry were themselves migrants from Lahore, Calcutta, and Madras.     
Those who came from Lahore, then in Punjab, were especially important for the development of the Hindi Film industry. Many famous writers, like Ismat Chughtai and Saadat Hasan Manto, were associated with Hindi Cinema.

Industrialisation and the rise of the modern city in England 

Industrialisation changed the form of urbanisation. The early industrial cities of Britain such as Leeds and Manchester attracted large number of migrants to the textile mills migrants were from rural areas.
London in 1950, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. Population was 675000 and its population multiplied fourfold in 70 years. London, ' says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, 'was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers and beggars.
Mojor indudtries that came up in London were :
    1.    Dockyard
    2.    Clothing and footwear.
    3.    Wood and furniture.
    4.    Metals and engineering
    5.    Printing and Stationery
    6.    Precision products such as surgical instruments, watches and objects of precious metal.
    7.    During the First World War London began manufacturing motorcars and electrical goods and the number of  large factories increased.

Marginal groups
    As London grew, crime flourished. 20000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated.
    In the mid nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes compiled long list of those who made a living from crime. Many were poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. Others were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves.To discipline the population; authorities imposed high penalties and offered work to those who were considered the 'deserving poor'.

Women in London
    Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households.
    A large number of women used their homes to increase family income be taking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. In the later twentieth century. Women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Housing and Land Reclamation

Housing 
    Owner did not house the mirant workers. Individual landowners put up cheap, and usually unsafe, tenements for the new arrivals.
    Poverty was more concentrated and starkly visible in the city. Charles Booth, a Liverpool ship owner, conducted the first social survey of low skilled London workers. He found that as many as 1 million Londoners were very poor and were expected to live only up to an average age of 29. London 'needed the rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens'.
    A larger number of people began to recognize the need for housing for the poor. Reasons for this increasing concern are
    1.    The vast masses of one-room houses occupied by the poor were seen as a serious threat to         public health: they were overcrowded, badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation.
    2.    There were worries about fire hazards created by poor housing.
    3.    There was a widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the Russian revolution in 1917.

The City in Colonial India
    The pace of urbanisation in India was slow under colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, 11% of Indians were living in cities. Mostly in the three Presidency cities, of Bombay, Bengal and Madras, they had major ports, warehouses, home and offices, army camps, education institutions, museums and libraries. Bombay was the premier city of India.
    The first cotton textile mill in Bombay was established in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills with about 146000 workers. Large number of  people flowed in from the nearby district of Ratnagiri to work in the Bombay mills.
    Women formed 23% of the mill workforce. By the late 1930s, women's jobs were increasingly taken over by machines or by men.
    Bombay dominated the maritime trade of India. It was also at the junction head of two major railways. The railways encouraged an even higher scale of migration into the city.

Housing and Neighborhoods
    Bombay was a crowed city. Every Londoner in the 1840s enjoyed an average space of 155 square yards; Bombay had a mere 9.5 Square yards. By 1872, when London had an average of 8 persons per house, the density in Bombay was as high as 20. From its earliest days, Bombay did not grow according to any plan, and houses, especially in the fort area, were interspersed with gardens. The Bombay Fort area was divided between a native town, where most of the Indians lived, and a European or 'white' section. A European suburb and an industrial Zone began to develop to the north of the Fort settlement area, with a similar suburb and cantonment in the south.
    With the rapid and unplanned expansion of the city, the crisis of housing and water supply became acute. The arrival of the textile mills only increased the pressure on Bombay's housing.
    The richer Parsi, Muslim and upper caste traders and industrialists of Bombay lived in sprawling, spacious bungalows. But 70 % of the working people lived in the thickly populated chawls of Bombay.
    Chawls were multi-stroreyed structures built in the 'native' parts of the town. These houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money. Each chawl was divided into small one-room tenements, which has no private toilets.
    Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. High rents forced workers to share homes, either with relatives or caste fellows who were streaming into the city. People has to keep the windows of their rooms closed even in humid weather due to the close proximity of filthy gutters, privies, buffalo stables etc. Water was scarce, and people often quarreled every morning for a turn at the tap, observers found that houses were kept quite clean.
    The homes being small, street and neighborhoods were used for cooking, washing and sleeping. Liquor shop and akharas came up in any empty spot. Streets were also used for different type of leisure activities.

    Eg. Magicians, monkey players or acrobats used to regularly perform. The Nandi bull used to come.  Kadaklakshmi used to beat themselves on their naked bodies in order to fill their stomachs . Chawls were also the place for the exchange of news about jobs, strikes, riots or demonstrations.
    The jobber in the mills was the local neighborhood leader. He settled disputes, organized food supplies, or arranged informal credit.
    People of the ' depressed classes' found it difficult to find housing. Lower castes were kept out of many chawls and often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo poles.
    The city of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898; it focused on clearing poorer homes out of the city center. By 1918, trust schemes had deprived 64000 people of their homes, but only 14000 were rehoused. In 1918 a Rent Act was passed to keep rents reasonable, but it had the opposite effect of producing a severe housing crisis, since landlords withdrew houses from the market.
    In Bombay there was scarcity of land. One of the ways the city of Bombay has developed is through massive reclamation projects. 

Land Reclamation in Bombay
    The seven islands of Bombay were joined into one landmass in 1784. The Bombay governor William Hornby approved the building of the great sea wall, which prevented the flooding of the low-lying areas of Bombay.
    The needs of additional commercial space in the mid nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies.
    Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar hill to the end of Calaba. Reclamation meant the leveling of the hills around Bombay. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea.
    The Bombay Port Trust built a dry dock between 1914 ands 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre. Ballard estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed.

 Bombay as the City of Dreams: The World of Cinema and Culture 
    Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a 'mayapuri' - a city of dreams.
    Many Bombay films deal with the arrival of new migrants  in the city and their encounters with the real pressure of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. Eg CID (1956) and Guest house (1959)

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Social Changes in the cities

In the eighteenth century, the family had been a unit of production and consumption and political     decision-making. Families were completely transformed in the industrial city.
Ties between members of household loosened, institution of   marriage broke women of the upper and middle classes in Britain, faced isolation, their lives were made easier by domestic maids who cooked cleaned and cared for young children on low wages.
Women who worked for wages had some control over their lives, social reforms felt that the family as an institution had broken down.
    
Men, Women and family in the city
The city encouraged individualism among both men and women, and    a freedom from the collective values Women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve, and the dometic sphere was seen as the proper place for women. Most political movements such as Chartism mobilised large numbers of men.Chartism is a movement demanding vote for all adult males  Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or for married women's rights to property
By the twentieth century women were employed in large numbers to meet war demands. The family now consisted of much smaller units.
The new industrial city provided opportunities for mass work, it also raised the problem of mass leisure on Sunday and other common holidays.
    
Leisure and consumption
For wealthy Britishers, there had long been an annual 'London season'. Culture events, such as the opera, the theatre and classical music performances were organized working classes met in pubs to have a drink, exchange news and sometimes also to organize for political action.
New type entertainment for the common people came into being libraries; art galleries and museums were established in to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the achievements of the British. At first, visitors to the British museum in London numbered just about 15000 every year, but when entry was made free their number jumped.
British industrial workers were increasingly encouraged to spend their holidays by the sea, so as to derive the benefits of the sun and winds.

Politics in the City
In the severe winter of 1886, when outdoor work came to a standstill, the London poor exploded in a riot, shopkeepers closed down their establishments, fearing the 10000 strong crowds that were marching from Deptford to London. The marchers had to be dispersed by the police. A similar riot occurred in the late 1887; it was brutally suppressed by the police in what came to be known as the Bloody Sunday of November 1887.
In 1889 thousands of London's dockworkers went on strike the 12 day strike was called to gain recognition for the dockworkers union.
Large masses of people were be drawn into political causes in large city population was a threat and an opportunity. State authorities tried to reduce the possibility of rebellion and enhance urban development.

Illustration 6
    What was done to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs?
Solution
    The London underground railway was built to persuade people to leave London and live in garden suburbs. It carried large masses of people to and from the city.
    
Illustration 7
    Why were women forced to withdraw into their homes?
Solution
    Women were forced to withdraw into their homes because they had lost their industrial jobs and conservative people rallied against their presence in public spaces.
    
Illustration 8
     What were the ‘Chartism’ and the ‘10-hour’ movements? 
Solution
    (i)     The Chartism Movement. demanded the vote for all adult males.
    (ii)     The 10 hour Movement. demanded limited hours of work in factories.
    
Illustration 9
    By what had the urban family been transformed by the twentieth century?
Solution    
    By the twentieth century urban family had been transformed partly by the experience of the valuable wartime work done by women who were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.
    
Illustration 10
    When and why did pleasure gardens come?
Solution
    Pleasure gardens came in the nineteenth century to provide facilities for sports, entertainment and refreshments for the well - to - do.
    
Try your self :
3.    Why were libraries  and museuns established? 
4.    What is chartism?
5.    Why did London poor riot? 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.
 

Cities and the Challenge of the Environment

City development occurred at the expense of ecology and the environment. Natural features were transformed in response to the growing demand for space for Factories, housing and other intuitions. Large quantities of refuse and waste products polluted air and water, while excessive noise became a feature of urban life.
The widespread use of coal in home and industries  raised serious problems. In industrial cities such as Leeds, Bradford and Manchester, people joked that the skies were grey and all vegetation was black! Shopkeepers, homeowners and other complained about the black fog that descended on their Towns, causing bad tempers, smoke- related illnesses, and dirty clothes.
When people first joined campaigns for cleaner air, it was not at all easy, since factory owners and stream engine owners did not want to spend on technologies that would improve their machines. By the 1840s, Derby, Leeds and Manchester had laws to control smoke in the city. The Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1853, as they were called, did not always work to clear the air.
Calcutta too had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the city was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate thick black smog. High levels of pollution were a consequence of the huge population that depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life. Main polluters were the industries and establishments that used steam engines run on coal.
Colonial authorities wanted to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours. The high content of ash in India coal was a problem. In 1863, Calcutta became the first Indian city to get Smoke Nuisance legislation.
    In 1920, the rice mills of Tollygungs began to burn rice husk instead of coal, finally the inspectors of Bengal smoke nuisance commission finally managed to control industrial smoke.